Speech-language pathologists frequently use data regarding children's speech acquisition.
The table below includes journal articles and theses that provide data on the age typically developing children acquire consonants, consonant clusters, vowels, and tones. Inclusion in the table does not indicate endorsement or guarantee the rigor of the research.
In addition to the list below, the Speech acquisition summary page provides an overview of speech acquisition across languages. The CHILDES/BIB (http://childes.talkbank.org/bibs/) is a bibliography of research articles published before 2002 on child language acquisition (including phonological acquisition). If you know of additional studies regarding the age of acquisition of consonants, consonant clusters, vowels, or tones please contact us.
| Language (dialect) | Reference | No. of Participants | Age of acquisition data* | Access Information |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afrikaans | Lotter, E. C. (1974). 'n Ondersoek na die ontwikkeling van artikulasie by die Afrikaanssprekende kind met die oog op die opstel van 'n geskikte artikulasietoets [The development of articulation in Afrikaans-speaking children and the development of an appropriate articulation test]. (Master's thesis), University of Pretoria, South Africa. [in Afrikaans] | 999 | C, CC | Thesis |
| Afrikaans | Lotter, E. C. (1974). Die ontwikkeling van die artikulasie vermoe by die Afrikaans sprekende kind [Development of articulation by an Afrikaans child]. Tydskrif van die Suid Afrikaanse vereniging vir spraak en gehoorkunde, 33, 33-41. [in Afrikaans] | - | Journal article | |
| Arabic (ﺍﻠﻌﺮﺒﯿﱠﺔ) (Jordanian) | Amayreh, M. M. (2003). Completion of the consonant inventory of Arabic. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46(3), 517-529. | 60 | C | Journal article |
| Arabic (ﺍﻠﻌﺮﺒﯿﱠﺔ) (Jordanian) | Amayreh, M. M., & Dyson, A. T. (1998). The acquisition of Arabic consonants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41(3), 642-653. | 180 | C, PCC | Journal article |
| Arabic (ﺍﻠﻌﺮﺒﯿﱠﺔ) (Jordanian) | Amayreh, M. M., & Dyson, A. T. (2000). Phonetic inventories of young Arabic-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 14(3), 193-215. | 13 | C, V | Journal article |
| Arabic (ﺍﻠﻌﺮﺒﯿﱠﺔ) (Jordanian) | Dyson, A. T., & Amayreh, M. M. (2000). Phonological errors and sound changes in Arabic-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 14(2), 79-109. | 50 | C | Journal article |
| Arabic (ﺍﻠﻌﺮﺒﯿﱠﺔ) (Jordanian) | Hamdan, J. M., & Amayreh, M. M. (2007). Consonant profile of Arabic-speaking school-age children in Jordan. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 59(2), 55-64. | 100 | C | Journal article |
| Arabic (ﺍﻠﻌﺮﺒﯿﱠﺔ) (Kuwaiti) | Alquattan, S. (2015). Early phonological acquisition by Kuwaiti Arabic children. (Doctoral dissertation), Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK. | 70 | C, CC, PCC | Thesis |
| Arabic (ﺍﻠﻌﺮﺒﯿﱠﺔ) (Kuwaiti) | Ayyad, H. S., Bernhardt, B. M., & Stemberger, J. P. (2016, in press). Kuwaiti Arabic: Acquisition of singleton consonants. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 10.1111/1460-6984.12229 | 80 | C | Journal article |
| Arabic (ﺍﻠﻌﺮﺒﯿﱠﺔ) (Kuwaiti) | Ayyad, H. S. (2011). Phonological development of typically developing Kuwaiti Arabic-speaking preschoolers. (Doctoral dissertation), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. | 80 | C, CC, V | Thesis |
| Cantonese (粵語 (廣東話)) | Edwards, J., & Beckman, M. E. (2008). Some cross-linguistic evidence for modulation of implicational universals by language-specific frequency effects in phonological development. Language Learning and Development, 4(2), 122-156. | 22 | C | Journal article |
| Cantonese (粵語 (廣東話)) (Hong Kong) | Cheung, P. (1990). The acquisition of Cantonese phonology in Hong Kong: A cross-sectional study. (Bachelor's thesis), University College London, London, UK. | 155 | Thesis | |
| Cantonese (粵語 (廣東話)) (Hong Kong) | So, L. K. H., & Dodd, B. J. (1995). The acquisition of phonology by Cantonese-speaking children. Journal of Child Language, 22(3), 473-495. | 268 | C, V, T | Journal article |
| Cantonese (粵語 (廣東話)) (Hong Kong) | To, C. K., Cheung, P. S., & McLeod, S. (2013). A population study of children's acquisition of Hong Kong Cantonese consonants, vowels, and tones. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 56(1), 103-122. | 1,726 | C, V, T | Journal article |
| Catalan | Llach Carles, S., & Palmada Félez, B. (2011). Cambios en la adquisición del sistema fonológico de las consonantes entre 4 y 5 años [Changes in the acquisition of the phonological system of consonants between 4 and 5 years]. Revista de Logopedia, Foniatria y Audiologia, 31(2), 106-112. [in Spanish] | 150 | C | Journal article |
| Danish (dansk) | Clausen, A. M. C., & Fox-Boyer, A. (2011). Dansk-sprogede børns fonologiske udvikling [Danish-speaking children's phonological development]. Dansk Audiologopædi, 47(4), 4-14. | 80 | C | Journal article |
| Danish (dansk) | Clausen, A. M. C., & Fox-Boyer, A. V. (2016). The phonological development of Danish-speaking children: A normative study. Manuscript in submission. | 443 | C, CC, V, PCC, PVC | - |
| Drehu - French | Monnin, J. (2010). Influence de la langue ambiante sur l'acquisition phonologique: Une comparaison du français et du drehu [The impact of language environment on phonological acquisition: A comparison of French and Drehu]. Université de Grenoble; Université de Nouvelle Calédonie. [in French] | C, CC | Thesis | |
| Dutch (Nederlands) | Beers, M. (1996). Acquisition of Dutch phonological contrasts within the framework of feature geometry theory. In B. Bernhardt, J. Gilbert & D. Ingram (Eds.), Proceedings of the UBC International Conference on Phonological Acquisition. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press. | 45 | C | Book Chapter |
| Dutch (Nederlands) (Standard) | Beers, M. (1995). The phonology of normally developing and language impaired children. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. | 58 | C | Thesis |
| Dutch (Nederlands) (Standard) | Van Severen, L. (2013). A large-scale longitudinal survey of consonant development in toddlers' spontaneous speech. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Antwerp, Antwerpen, Belgium. | 30 | C | Thesis |
| Dutch (Nederlands) (Standard) | Van Severen, L., Van Den Berg, R., Molemans, I., & Gillis, S. (2012). Consonant inventories in the spontaneous speech of young children: A bootstrapping procedure. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 26(2), 164-187. | 30 | C | Journal article |
| English | Edwards, J., & Beckman, M. E. (2008). Some cross-linguistic evidence for modulation of implicational universals by language-specific frequency effects in phonological development. Language Learning and Development, 4(2), 122-156. | 23 | C | Journal article |
| English (African American and American) | Pearson, B. Z., Velleman, S. L., Bryant, T. J., & Charko, T. (2009). Phonological milestones for African American English-speaking children learning mainstream American English as a second dialect. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 40(3), 229-244. | 854 (537+317) | C, CC | Journal article |
| English (African American) | Seymour, H. N., & Ralabate, P. K. (1985). The acquisition of a phonologic feature of Black English. Journal of Communication Disorders, 18(2), 139-148. | 40 | C | Journal article |
| English (African American) | Stockman, I. J. (1993). Variable word initial and medial consonant relationships in children's speech sound articulation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 76(2), 675-689. | 106 | C | Journal article |
| English (African American) | Wilcox, L. D., & Anderson, R. T. (1998). Distinguishing between phonological difference and disorder in children who speak African-American vernacular English: An experimental testing instrument. Journal of Communication Disorders, 31, 315-335. | 26 | C, CC | Journal article |
| English (American) | Kirk, C., & Demuth, K. (2005). Asymmetries in the acquisition of word-initial and word-final consonant clusters. Journal of Child Language, 32(4), 709-734. | 12 | CC | Journal article |
| English (American) | Mirak, J., & Rescorla, L. (1998). Phonetic skills and vocabulary size in late talkers: Concurrent and predictive relationships. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19(1), 1-17 | 20 | C | Journal article |
| English (American) | Arlt, P. B., & Goodban, M. T. (1976). A comparative study of articulation acquisition as based on a study of 240 normals, aged three to six. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 7(3), 173-180. | 240 | C, CC, V | Journal article |
| English (American) | Bondarenko, K. (2011). Speech sound acquisition of two year olds. (Master's thesis), William Paterson University of New Jersey, Wayne, NJ. | 25 | C | Thesis |
| English (American) | Fabiano-Smith, L., & Goldstein, B. A. (2010). Early-, middle-, and late-developing sounds in monolingual and bilingual children: An exploratory investigation. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 19(1), 66-77. | 24 (8+8+8) | C | Journal article |
| English (American) | Geitz, B. E. (1998). The development of stop consonant place of articulation in preadolescent children. (Master's thesis), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. | 64 | C | Thesis |
| English (American) | Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. E., & Wright, K. L. (2010). English speech acquisition in 3- to 5-year-old children learning Russian and English. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 41(4), 429-444. | 42 (14+28) | C, CC, PCC, PVC | Journal article |
| English (American) – Spanish (Español) | Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. E., Kester, E. S., Davis, B. L., & Peña, E. D. (2008). English speech sound development in preschool-aged children from bilingual English-Spanish environments. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 39(3), 314-328. | 33 (10+20+3) | C | Journal article |
| English (American) | Holzberger, J. D. (1952). Development of consonant articulation and discrimination in the speech of kindergarten children. (Master's thesis), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colarado. | 50 | C | Thesis |
| English (American) – Mandarin | Liu-Shea, M. (2011). Phonological acquisition in simultaneous bilingual Mandarin-English preschoolers. (Doctoral dissertation), New York University, New York, NY. | 10 | C | Thesis |
| English (American) | McCune, L., & Vihman, M. M. (2001). Early phonetic and lexical development: A productivity approach. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44(3), 670-684. | 20 | C | Journal article |
| English (American) | Menyuk, P. (1968). The role of distinctive features in children's acquisition of phonology. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 11(1), 138-146. | - | C | Journal article |
| English (American and African American) | Pearson, B. Z., Velleman, S. L., Bryant, T. J., & Charko, T. (2009). Phonological milestones for African American English-speaking children learning mainstream American English as a second dialect. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 40(3), 229-244. | 854 (537+317) | C, CC | Journal article |
| English (American) | Poole, E. (1934). Genetic development of articulation of consonant sounds in speech. Elementary English Review, 11, 159-161. | 140 | C | Journal article |
| English (American) | Porter, J. H., & Hodson, B. W. (2001). Collaborating to obtain phonological acquisition data for local schools. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32(3), 165-171. | 520 | C | Journal article |
| English (American) | Prather, E. M., Hedrick, D. L., & Kern, C. A. (1975). Articulation development in children aged two to four years. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 40(2), 179-191. | 147 | C | Journal article |
| English (American) | Smit, A. B., Hand, L., Freilinger, J. J., Bernthal, J. E., & Bird, A. (1990). The Iowa Articulation Norms Project and its Nebraska replication. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 55, 779-798. | 997 | C, CC | Journal article |
| English (American) | Templin, M. C. (1957). Certain language skills in children. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, The Institute of Child Welfare. | 480 | C, CC, V | Book |
| English (American) | Watson, M. M., & Scukanec, G. P. (1997). Profiling the phonological abilities of 2-year-olds: A longitudinal investigation. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 13(1), 3-14. | 12 | C, CC, PCC | Journal article |
| English (American) | Wellman, B., Case, I., Mengert, I., & Bradbury, D. (1931). Speech sounds of young children. University of Iowa Studies in Child Welfare, 5(2), Iowa City: University of Iowa Child Welfare Research Station. | 240 | C, CC, V | Book |
| English (Australian) | Chirlian, N. S., & Sharpley, C. F. (1982). Children's articulation development: Some regional differences. Australian Journal of Human Communication Disorders, 10, 23-30. | 1,375 | C | Journal article |
| English (Australian) | James, D. G. H., van Doorn, J., & McLeod, S. (2002). Segment production in mono-, di- and polysyllabic words in children aged 3-7 years. In F. Windsor, L. Kelly, & N. Hewlett (Eds.), Themes in Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics (pp. 287-298). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. | 283 | PCC, PVC | Book chapter |
| English (Australian) | Kilminster, M. G. E., & Laird, E. M. (1978). Articulation development in children aged three to nine years. Australian Journal of Human Communication Disorders, 6, 23-30. | 1,756 | C | Journal article |
| English (Australian) | McIntosh, B., & Dodd, B. J. (2008). Two-year-olds' phonological acquisition: Normative data. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10(6), 460-469. | 62 | C, CC, PCC, PVC, PPC | Journal article |
| English (Australian) | McLeod, S., & Arciuli, J. (2009). School-aged children's production of /s/ and /r/ consonant clusters. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 61(6), 336-341. | 74 | CC | Journal article |
| English (Australian) | McLeod, S., van Doorn, J., & Reed, V. A. (2001). Consonant cluster development in two-year-olds: General trends and individual difference. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44(5), 1144-1171. | 16 | CC | Journal article |
| English (British) | Dodd, B. J., Holm, A., Hua, Z., & Crosbie, S. (2003). Phonological development: A normative study of British English-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 17(8), 617-643. | 684 | C, CC, V, PCC, PVC, PPC | Journal article |
| English (British) | Roulstone, S., Loader, S., Northstone, K., & Beveridge, M. (2002). The speech and language of children aged 25 months: Descriptive data from the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children. Early Child Development and Care, 172(3), 259-268. | 1,127 | C, CC | Journal article |
| English (Canadian) | MacLeod, A. A. N., Laukys, K., & Rvachew, S. (2011). The impact of bilingual language learning on whole-word complexity and segmental accuracy among children aged 18 and 36 months. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 13(6), 490-499. | 19 | C, PCC | Journal article |
| English (Irish) | Monaghan, C. (2014). Are norms for percent consonant correct and the age of acquisition of phonemes in the Irish DEAP valid for a sample of typically developing children in Limerick? (Master's thesis), University of Limerick, Limerick, Republic of Ireland. | 60 | C, PCC | Thesis |
| English (Malaysian) | Phoon, H. S., Abdullah, A. C., & Maclagan, M. (2012). The effect of dialect on the phonological analysis of Chinese-influenced Malaysian English speaking children. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 14(6), 487-498. | 264 | C, CC, PCC | Journal article |
| English (Malaysian) | Phoon, H. S. (2010). The phonological development of Malaysian English speaking Chinese children: A normative study. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. | 264 | C, CC, V | Thesis |
| English (New Zealand) | Ballard, E., Wilson, J., Campbell, S., Purdy, S. C., & Yee, T. (2011). Phonological development: Establishing norms for New Zealand children aged 5;0 to 5;11 years. New Zealand Journal of Speech-Language Therapy, 66, 66-79. | 106 | PCC, PVC, PPC | Journal article |
| English (New Zealand) | Moyle, J. (2005). The New Zealand Articulation Test Norms Project. New Zealand Journal of Speech-Language Therapy, 60, 61-74. | 1,013 | C, CC | Journal article |
| English (Singaporean) | En, L. G. W., Brebner, C., & McCormack, P. (2014). A preliminary report on the English phonology of typically developing English-Mandarin bilingual preschool Singaporean children. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 49(3), 317-332. | 70 | PCC, PVC, PPC | Journal article |
| English (South African) | Mowrer, D. E., & Burger, S. (1991). A comparative analysis of phonological acquisition of consonants in the speech of 2½-6-year-old Xhosa- and English-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 5(2), 139-164. | 140 (70+70) | C | Journal article |
| English - Kikuyu | Nyagah, J. W. (1994). The acquisition of initial English consonant clusters by Kikuyu children. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Reading, Reading, UK. | 34 | C, CC | Thesis |
| English - Spanish (Dominican & Puerto Rican) | Fabiano-Smith, L., & Goldstein, B. A. (2010). Early-, middle-, and late-developing sounds in monolingual and bilingual children: An exploratory investigation. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 19(1), 66-77. | 24 (8+8+8) | C | Journal article |
| English (American) - Spanish (Español) (Mexican) | Ruiz-Felter, R., Cooperson, S. J., Bedore, L. M., & Peña, E. D. (in press). Influence of current input–output and age of first exposure on phonological acquisition in early bilingual Spanish–English-speaking kindergarteners. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders. | 91 | C, V | Journal article |
| English - Spanish (Español) (Mexican) | Ermey, J. (1978). The acquisition of English consonant sounds by Spanish speaking Mexican-American children four to eight years of age. (Master's thesis), Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas. | 500 | C, CC | Thesis |
| English - Welsh (Cymraeg) | Munro, S., Ball, M. J., Müller, N., Duckworth, M., & Lyddy, F. (2005). Phonological acquisition in Welsh-English bilingual children. Journal of Multilingual Communication Disorders, 3(1), 24-49. | 83 | C | Journal article |
| English - Welsh (Cymraeg) | Howells, G. H. (2012). The acquisition of word final consonant clusters in Welsh-English bilingual children. (Honours thesis), Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, Wales. | 40 | CC | Thesis |
| English - Welsh (Cymraeg) | Ball, M. J., Müller, N., & Munro, S. (2001). The acquisition of the rhotic consonants by Welsh-English bilingual children. International Journal of Bilingualism, 5(1), 71-86. | 83 | C, PCC | Journal article |
| English - Welsh (Cymraeg) | Ball, M. J., Muller, N., & Munro, S. (2001). The acquisition of the lateral fricative in Welsh-English bilinguals. Multilingua, 20(3), 269. | 83 | C | Journal article |
| English - Welsh (Cymraeg) | Ball, M. J., Müller, N., & Munro, S. (2001). Patterns in the acquisition of the Welsh lateral fricative. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 15(1/2), 3-7. | 83 | C | Journal article |
| Finnish (suomi) | Kunnari, S. (2003). Suomea omaksuvien lasten ensisanojen konsonantit [Early consonant inventories in children acquiring Finnish]. Puhe ja Kieli, 23(4), 197-205. [in Finnish] | 10 | C | Journal article |
| Finnish (suomi) | Kunnari, S. (2003). Consonant inventories: A longitudinal study of Finnish-speaking children. Journal of Multilingual Communication Disorders, 1(2), 124-131. | 10 | C | Journal article |
| Finnish (suomi) | Kunnari, S. (2006). Kaksivuotiaiden suomalaislasten konsonantti-inventaarit [2-year-old Finnish children's consonant inventory]. Puhe ja Kieli, 26(2), 71-79. [in Finnish] | 24 | C | Journal article |
| Finnish (suomi) | Saaristo-Helin, K. (2009). Measuring phonological development: A follow-up study of five children acquiring Finnish. Language and Speech, 52(1), 55-77. | 5 | C | Journal article |
| Finnish (suomi) | Tolvainen, J. (1997). The acquisition of Finnish. In D. I. Slobin (Ed.), The crosslinguistic study of language acquisition (Vol. 4, pp.827-182). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. | 4 | C | Book chapter |
| French (Français) | Demuth, K., & McCullough, E. (2009). The longitudinal development of clusters in French. Journal of Child Language, 36(2), 425-448. | 2 | CC | Journal article |
| French (Français) | Demuth, K., & Kehoe, M. (2006). The acquisition of word-final clusters in French. Catalan Journal of Linguistics, 5, 59-81. | 14 | CC | Journal article |
| French (Français) -Drehu | Monnin, J. (2010). Influence de la langue ambiante sur l'acquisition phonologique: Une comparaison du français et du drehu [The impact of language environment on phonological acquisition: A comparison of French and Drehu]. Université de Grenoble; Université de Nouvelle Calédonie. [in French] | C, CC | Thesis | |
| French (Français) (Canadian) | Rvachew, S., Marquis, A., Brosseau-Lapré, F., Paul, M., Royle, P., & Gonnerman, L. M. (2013). Speech articulation performance of francophone children in the early school years: Norming of the Test de Dépistage Francophone de Phonologie. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 27(12), 950-968. | 61 | C, CC, PCC | Journal article |
| French (Français) (Canadian) | MacLeod, A. A. N., Laukys, K., & Rvachew, S. (2011). The impact of bilingual language learning on whole-word complexity and segmental accuracy among children aged 18 and 36 months. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 13(6), 490-499. | 40 (21+19) | C, CC, PCC, WWP | Journal article |
| French (Français) (Québécois) | MacLeod, A. A. N., Sutton, A., Trudeau, N., & Thordardottir, E. (2011). The acquisition of consonants in Québécois French: A cross-sectional study of pre-school aged children. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 13(2), 93-109. | 156 | C, CC, V, PCC | Journal article |
| German (Deutsch) | Fox, A. V., & Dodd, B. J. (1999). Der Erwerb des phonologischen systems in der deutschen Sprache [The acquisition of phonological systems in German]. Sprache-Stimme-Gehör, 23, 183-191. [in German] | 178 | C, CC, V, PCC, PVC, PPC | Journal article |
| German (Deutsch) | Schaefer, B., & Fox-Boyer, A. (2016, in press). The acquisition of initial consonant clusters in German-speaking 2-year-olds. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, doi:10.1080/17549507.2016.1221450 |
145+ 6 | CC | Journal article |
| Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Syrika, A., Nicolaidis, K., Edwards, J., & Beckman, M. E. (2011). Acquisition of Initial /s/-stop and stop-/s/ sequences in Greek. Language and Speech, 54(3), 361-386. | 60 | C, CC | Journal article |
| Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Stephany, U. (1997). The acquisition of Greek. In D. I. Slobin (Ed.) The crosslinguistic study of language acquisition (Vol. 4, pp. 183-333). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum | Book chapter | ||
| Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Edwards, J., & Beckman, M. E. (2008). Some cross-linguistic evidence for modulation of implicational universals by language-specific frequency effects in phonological development. Language Learning and Development, 4(2), 122-156. | 85 (22+23+20+20) | C | Journal article |
| Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής)(Cretan) | Tzakosta, M. (2001). The realization of consonant clusters in child speech. Studies in Greek Linguistics, 21, 736-746. [in Greek] | 1 | CC | Journal article |
| Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) (Cypriot) | Petinou, K., & Theodorou, E. (2016). Early phonetic development in typically developing children: A longitudinal investigation from Cypriot-Greek child data. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 30(1), 12-28. | 14 | C | Journal article |
| Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) (Modern) | Papadopoulou, K. (2000). Phonological acquisition of Modern Greek. (Bachelor's thesis), University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle, UK. | 34 | C, CC, V |
| Language (dialect) | Reference | No. of Participants | Age of Acquisition Data* | Access Information |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Haitian Creole | Archer, J., Champion, T., Tyrone, M. E., & Walters, S. (2013). Investigating phonological development in monolingual Haitian Creole-speaking preschool children. (Master's thesis), Long Island University, Brooklyn, NY. | 12 | C, CC, PCC | Thesis |
| Hebrew (עברית) (Israeli) | Ben-David, A. (2001). רכישת שפה לאור תיאוריה פונולוגית:תהליכים משותפים וייחודיים בקרב ילדים שונים ובשפות שונות.[Language acquisition and phonological theory: Universal and variable processes across children and across languages]. (Doctoral dissertation), Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel. [in Hebrew] | 10 | C, CC, V | Thesis |
| Hebrew (עברית) | Ben-David, A. (2015). Norms in Hebrew phonological acquisition. The Israeli Journal of Language, Speech and Hearing Disorders, 34, 1-14. [in Hebrew] | 1,113 | Journal article | |
| Hebrew (עברית) | Ben-David, A., & Bat-El, O. (2016). Paths and stages in acquisition of the phonological word in Hebrew. In R. Berman (Ed.), Acquisition and development of Hebrew: Infancy to adolescence. (pp. 39-68). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins. | Book chapter | ||
| Hebrew (עברית) | Lavie, S. (1978). Norms for the development of Hebrew consonants between the ages of 3 to 5 years. (Master's thesis), Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel. [in Hebrew] | 200 | Thesis | |
| Hindi | Srivastava, G. P. (1974). A child's acquisition of Hindi consonants. Indian Linguistics, 35(2), 112-118. | 1 | C | Journal article |
| Hungarian (Magyar) | Nagy, J. (1980). 5-6 éves gyermekeink iskolakészültsége [Preparedness for school of five to six years old children]. Budapest, Hungary: Akadémiai Kiadó. [in Hungarian] | 7,602 | C, V, PCC | Book |
| Icelandic (Íslenskur) | Másdóttir, T., & Stokes, S. F. (2016). Influence of consonant frequency on Icelandic-speaking children's speech acquisition. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 18(2), 111-121. | 28 | C | Journal article |
| Igbo | Nwokah, E. E. (1986). Consonantal substitution patterns in Igbo phonological acquisition. Language and Speech, 29(2), 159-176. doi:10.1177/002383098602900204 | 39 | C, CC | Journal article |
| Italian (Italiano) | Zanobini, M., Viterbori, P., & Saraceno, F. (2012). Phonology and language development in Italian children: An analysis of production and accuracy. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 55(1), 16-31. | 30 | C | Journal article |
| Italian (Italiano) | Zmarich, C., & Bonifacio, S. (2005). Phonetic inventories in Italian children aged 18 - 27 months: A longitudinal study. Paper presented at the INTERSPEECH 2005 - Proceedings of Eurospeech, 9th European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology, Lisbon, Portugal. | 13 | C | Journal article |
| Jamaican Creole | Meade, R. R. (2001). Acquisition of Jamaican phonology. (Doctoral dissertation), Netherlands Graduate School of Linguistics, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. | 24 | C, CC, V | Thesis |
| Japanese (日本語) | Edwards, J., & Beckman, M. E. (2008). Some cross-linguistic evidence for modulation of implicational universals by language-specific frequency effects in phonological development. Language Learning and Development, 4(2), 122-156. | 85 (20+22+23+20) | C | Journal article |
| Japanese (日本語) | Menyuk, P. (1968). The role of distinctive features in children's acquisition of phonology. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 11(1), 138-146. | - | C | Journal article |
| Japanese (日本語) | Nakanishi, Y., Owada, K., & Fujita, N. (1972). Kōonkensa to sono kekka ni kansuru kōsatsu [Discussion of articulatory testing and its results]. Tokyo Gakugei Daigaku Tokushu Kyoiku Shisetsu Hokoku, 1, 1-19. [in Japanese] | 1,689 | C | Journal article |
| Japanese (日本語) | Nakanishi, Y. (1982). Kōon hattatsu [Articulatory development]. In R. Uchisugawa & Y. Yasuko (Eds.), Kōza gengo shōgai chiryō kyōiku 4: Kōonshōgai [Series in language disorder therapy education 4: Articulatory disorders] (pp. 37-64). Tokyo, Japan: Fukumura Shupann. [in Japanese] | 10 | C, V | Book chapter |
| Japanese (日本語) | Noda, M., Iwamura, Y., Naito, K., & Asukai, K. (1969). Yōji no kōonnōryoku no hattatsu ni kansuru kenkyū [A study on the development of children's articulatory ability]. Nihon Sōgō Aiiku Kenkyūsho Kiyō, 4, 153-170. [in Japanese] | 466 | C | Journal article |
| Japanese (日本語) | Sakauchi, T. (1967). Kodomo no kōon nōryoku ni tsuite [On children's articulatory ability]. Gengo Shōgai Kenkyū, 68, 13-26. [in Japanese] | 134 | C, CC | Journal article |
| Japanese (日本語) | Takagi, S., & Yasuda, A. (1967). Seijōyōji (3 - 6 sai) no kōonnōryoku [The articulatory ability of typically developing children (ages 3 to 6)]. Shōni Hoken Igaku, 25, 23-28. [in Japanese] | 133 | C | Journal article |
| Kikuyu - English | Nyagah, J. W. (1994). The acquisition of initial English consonant clusters by Kikuyu children. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Reading, Reading, UK. | 34 | C, CC | Thesis |
| Korean (한국어) | Chung, H. (2006). Developmental processes in production and perception of Korean /s/ and /s*. (Doctoral dissertation), Kent State University, Kent, OH. | 50 | C, PCC | Thesis |
| Korean (한국어) | Kim, M., Kim, S. J., & Stoel-Gammon, C. (2016, in press). Phonological acquisition of Korean consonants in conversational speech produced by young Korean children. Journal of Child Language, doi: 10.1017/s0305000916000258 | 60 | C, PCC | Journal article |
| Korean (한국어) | Kim, M., & Pae, S. (2005). The percentage of consonants correct and the ages of consonantal acquisition for 'Korean-Test of Articulation for Children'. Korean Journal of Speech Sciences, 12(2), 139-152. | 220 | C, CC, PCC | Journal article |
| Korean (한국어) | Kim, Y. (1996). The percentage of consonant correct (PCC) using picture articulation test in preschool children. Korean Journal of Communication Disorders, 1, 7-33. [in Korean] | 155 | C | Journal article |
| Korean (한국어) | Oum, J. (1986). Speech-sound development in children aged three to five years in Korean: With special reference to consonants. (Master's thesis), Ewha Women's University, Seoul, South Korea. [in Korean] | 150 | C | Thesis |
| Korean (한국어) | Pae, S. (1995). The development of language in Korean children. In The Korean Society of Communication Disorders (Ed.), Training of speech pathologists (pp. 18-35). Seoul, South Korea: Hanhaksa. [in Korean] | 320 | C | Book chapter |
| Korean (한국어) (Seoul) | Kim, M., & Stoel-Gammon, C. (2011). Phonological development of word-initial Korean obstruents in young Korean children. Journal of Child Language, 38(2), 316-340. | 40 | C | Journal article |
| Korean (한국어) (Seoul) | Kim, M., & Stoel-Gammon, C. (2009). The acquisition of Korean word-initial stops. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 125(6), 3950-3961. | 40 | C | Journal article |
| Malay (Panang) | Phoon, H. S., Abdullah, A. C., Lee, L. W., & Murugaiah, P. (2014). Consonant acquisition in the Malay language: A cross-sectional study of preschool aged Malay children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 28(5), 329-345. | 326 | C, PCC | Journal article |
| Maltese (Malti) -English | Grech, H., & Dodd, B. (2008). Phonological acquisition in Malta: A bilingual language learning context. International Journal of Bilingualism, 12(3), 155-171 | 241 | C | Journal article |
| Maltese (Malti) | Grech, H. (1998). Phonological development of normal Maltese speaking children. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Manchester, Manchester, UK. | 21 | C, CC, V | Thesis |
| Mandarin (also see Putonghua, below) – English | Liu-Shea, M. (2011). Phonological acquisition in simultaneous bilingual Mandarin-English preschoolers. (Doctoral dissertation), New York University, New York, NY. | 10 | C | Thesis |
| Mandarin - Taiwanese - Spanish | Yang, H.-Y., & Zhu Hua. (2010). The phonological development of a trilingual child: Facts and factors. International Journal of Bilingualism, 14(1), 105-126. | 1 | Journal article | |
| Norwegian (Norsk) | Kristoffersen, K. E., & Simonsen, H. G. (2006). The acquisition of #sC clusters in Norwegian. Journal of Multilingual Communication Disorders, 4(3), 231-241. | 27 | C | Journal article |
| Norwegian (Norsk) | Olsen, J. W. (2015). Talen hos norske fireåringer: En normering av testverktøyet SVANTE-N for artikulasjons- og nasalitetsvansker [The speech of four-year-old Norwegian children: A standardization of the SVANTE N test for articulation and nasality]. (Masters thesis), Universitetet i Nordland, Bodø, Norway. [in Norwegian] | 40 | C | Thesis |
| Persian | Jalilevand, N., Kamali, M., Tavakoli, M., Mahmudi, Z., Amiri, M., Hadavi, S., & Javanbaxt, M. (2014). بررسي توانايي توليد خوشههاي دو همخواني در كلمات CVCC در كودكان 3 تا 6 ساله طبيعي فارسيزبان تكهجايي با ساختار [The ability of 3- to 6-years-old Persian-speaking children in production of consonant clusters in mono-syllable CVCC words]. Audiology, 23(3), 22-29. [in Persian] | 200 | CC | Journal article |
| Polish (Polski) | Yavaş, M., & Marecka, M. (2013). Acquisition of Polish #sC clusters in typically-developing children and children with phonological disorders. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 16(2), 132-141. | 114 | CC | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) | Azambuja, E. J. M. (1998). A aquisição das líquidas laterais do Português: Um estudo transversal. (Master's thesis), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil. [in Portuguese] | 120 | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) | Lamprecht, R. R. (1990). Perfil de aquisição normal da fonologia do Português: Descrição longitudinal de crianças de 2:9 a 5:5 [Typical acquisition of Portuguese phonology: Longitudinal description of children 2;9-5;5]. (Doctoral dissertation), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil. [in Portuguese] | 12 | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) | Yavaş, M. S. (1988). Padrões na aquisição da fonologia do português [Patterns of the acquisition of phonology in Portuguese]. Letras de Hoje, 23(4), 7-30. [in Portuguese] | 72 | C | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Azevedo, C. D. (1994). Aquisição normal e com desvios da fonologia do português: Contrastes de sonoridade e de ponto de articulação [Typical and atypical acquisition of Portuguese phonology: Contrasts in sonority and place of articulation]. Letras de Hoje, 30(4), 285-294. [in Portuguese] | 28 | C | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Balen, S. A. (1995). Análise por traços distintivos do sistema fonológico de crianças com alterações na fala [DF analysis of the phonological system of children with speech disorders]. (Masters Thesis), Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil. [in Portuguese] | 11 | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Blanco-Dutra, A. P. (2009). A aquisição das fricativas /f/, /v/, /ʃ/ e /ʒ/ por crianças com desvio fonológico [The acquisition of the fricatives /f/, /v/, /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ by children with phonological disorder]. (Doctoral dissertation), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil. [in Portuguese] | 46 | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Campos, C. M. (1994). O caráter não-reprodutivo e não-aleatório das auto-repetições na fala inicial [The non-replicating and non-random nature of self-repetitions in early speech]. (Masters thesis), Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil. [in Portuguese] | 1 | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Ferrante, C. (2007). Aquisição fonológica em crianças de 3 a 8 anos de classe sócio econômica alta [Phonological acquisition in 3- to 8-year old children from high SES]. (Masters thesis), Universidade Veiga de Almeida, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. [in Portuguese] | 240 | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Hernandorena, C. L. M., & Lamprecht, R. R. (1997). A aquisição das consoantes líquidas do Português [The acquisition of liquid consonants in Portuguese]. Letras de Hoje, 32(4), 7-22. [in Portuguese] | 310 | C | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Hernandorena, C. L. M. (1990). A aquisição da fonologia do Português: Estabelecimento de padrões com base em traços distintivos [The acquisition of the Portuguese phonology : Establishment of standards based on distinctive features]. (Doctoral dissertation), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil. [in Portuguese] | 134 | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Ilha, S. E. (1993). O desenvolvimento fonológico do Português em crianças com idade entre [Phonological development of Portuguese children]. (Master's thesis), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil. [in Portuguese] | 26 | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Mezzomo, C. L., Baesso, J. S., Athayde, M. d. L., Dias, R. F., & Giacchini, V. (2008). O papel do contexto fonológico no desenvolvimento da fala: implicações para a terapia dos desvios fonológicos evolutivos [The role of phonological context in speech development: Implications for therapy of developmental phonological deviations]. Letras de Hoje, 43(3), 15-21. [in Portuguese] | 170 | C | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Mezzomo, C. (2001). Aquisição dos fonemas na posição de coda medial do português brasileiro em crianças com desenvolvimento fonológico normal [The acquisition of Brazilian Portuguese phonemes in the medial coda position by children with normal phonological development]. Letras de Hoje, 36(3), 707-713. [in Portuguese] | 68 | C | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Miranda, A. R. M. (2003). A representação das consoantes róticas nos sitemas de crianças brasileiras e argentinas [The representation of rhotics in Brazilian and Argentinian children's language systems]. Letras de Hoje, 38(2), 111-122. [in Portuguese] | 116 (110+6) | C | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Mota, H. B. (1997). Aquisição segmental do português: um modelo implicacional de complexidade de traços [Acquisition of segments in Portuguese: A complexity model]. Letras de Hoje, 32(4), 23-47. [in Portuguese] | 25 | C | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Mota, H. B. (1996). Aquisição segmental do português: um modelo implicacional de complexidade de traços [Acquisition of segments in Portuguese: A complexity model]. (Doctoral dissertation), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil. [in Portuguese] | 25 | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Oliveira, C. C. (2006). Aquisição das consoantes róticas no português brasileiro e no espanhol: Um estudo comparativo [Acquisition of rhotic consonants in Brazilian Portuguese and Spanish: A comparative study]. (Doctoral dissertation), Pontificia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil. [in Portuguese] | - | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Oliveira, C. C. (2003). Perfil da aquisição das frivativas /f/, /v/, /s/ e /z/ do português brasileiro: um estudi quantitativo [Acquisition profiles of the fricatives /f/, /v/, /s/, and /z/ in Brazilian Portuguese: A quantitative study]. Letras de Hoje, 38(2), 97-110. [in Portuguese] | 406 | C | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Oliveira, C. C. (2002). Aquisição dos fonemas /f/, /v/, /s/ e /z/ do português brasileiro [Acquisition of the phonemes /f/, /v/, /s/, and /z/ in Brazilian Portuguese]. (Master's thesis), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil. [in Portuguese] | - | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Patah, L. K., & Takiuchi, N. (2008). Prevalência das alterações fonológicas e uso dos processos fonológicos em escolares aos 7 anos. Revista CEFAC, 10(2), 158-167. [in Portuguese] | 1,076 | C | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Salviano Santini, C. R. (1995). Normative study of the acquisition of consonant sounds in Portuguese. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. | 192 | C, CC, PCC | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Savio, C. (2001). Aquisição das fricativas /s/ e /z/ do Português Brasileiro [Acquisition of the fricatives /s/ and /z/ in Brazilian Portuguese]. Letras de Hoje, 36(3), 721-727. [in Portuguese] | - | C | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (Brazilian) | Silva, M. K., Ferrante, C., Van Borsel, J., & Pereira, M. M. (2012). Phonological acquisition of Brazilian Portuguese in children from Rio de Janeiro. Jornal da Sociedade Brasileira de Fonoaudiologia, 24(3), 248-254. | 480 | C, CC, PCC | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (European) | Amorim, C. (2014). A aquisição das consoantes líquidas em português europeu: contributos para a caracterização da faixa etária 4;0 - 4;11 anos [The acquisition of liquid consonants in European Portuguese: Characterizaton of children 4;0-4;11]. Revista de Estudos Linguísticos da Universidade do Porto, 9, 59-82. | 40 | C | Journal article |
| Portuguese (Português) (European) | Charrua, C. P. (2011). Aquisição fonética-fonológica do Português Europeu dos 18 aos 36 meses [Phonetic-phonological acquisition of European Portuguese from 18 to 36 months]. (Masters thesis), Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal. [in Portuguese] | 46 | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (European) | Guerreiro, H., & Frota, S. (2010). Os processos fonológicos na fala da criança de cinco anos: tipologia e frequência [Phonological processes at five-years old: type and frequency]. Cadernos de Saúde, 3(1), 57-72. [in Portuguese] | 43 | C | Thesis |
| Portuguese (Português) (European) | Moutinho, L. d. C., & Lima, R. M. (n/d). Desempenho fonético em crianças dos 3 a 7 anos de idade no P.E. [Phonetic performance in European Portuguese in children aged 3 to 7]. Manuscript. [in Portuguese] | 432 | C | Journal article |
| Punjabi (ਪੰਜਾਬੀ), Mirpuri, Urdu | Stow, C., & Pert, S. (2006). Phonological acquisition in bilingual Pakistani heritage children in England. In Z. Hua & B. J. Dodd (Eds.), Phonological Development and Disorders in Children: A Multilingual Perspective (pp. 326-345). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. | 246 | C, PCC | Book chapter |
| Putonghua (also see Mandarin, above) | Hua, Z., & Dodd, B. (2000). The phonological acquisition of Putonghua (modern standard Chinese). Journal of Child Language, 27(1), 3-42. | 129 | C, V, T | Journal article |
| Russian (русский) | Timm, L. A. (1977). A child's acquisition of Russian phonology. Journal of Child Language, 4(3), 329-339. | 1 | C | Journal article |
| Russian (русский) | Beltukov, V. (1983). О сроках усвоения в произнопении звуков речи слыппашими детьми [Periods of mastery of articulation of speech sounds by hearing children]. Defektologiya, 2, 28-34. [in Russian] | - | Journal article | |
| Russian (русский) | Zharkova, N. (2005). Strategies in the acquisition of segments and syllables in Russian-speaking children. In M. Tzakosta, C. Levelt & J. van de Weijer (Eds), Developmental paths in phonological acquisition. Special issue of Leiden Papers in Linguistics, 2(1), 189-213. | 10 | C, V | Book chapter |
| Russian (русский) – English | Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. E., & Wright, K. L. (2010). English speech acquisition in 3- to 5-year-old children learning Russian and English. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 41(4), 429-444. | 42 (14+28) | C, CC, PCC, PVC | Journal article |
*Age of acquisition data for C, consonants; CC, consonant clusters; V, vowels; T, tones; PCC, percentage of consonants correct; PVC, percentage of vowels correct; PPC, percentage of phonemes correct; WWP, whole word proximity.
| Language (dialect) | Reference | No. of Participants | Age of Acquisition Data* | Access Information |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Samoan | Ballard, E., & Farao, S. (2008). The phonological skills of Samoan speaking 4-year-olds. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10(6), 379-391. | 20 | C, V, PCC, PVC | Journal article |
| Setswana Tswana | Mahura, O. O., & Pascoe, M. (2016). The acquisition of Setswana segmental phonology in children aged 3.0–6.0 years: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 18(6), 533-549. | 36 | C, V, PCC, PVC | Journal article |
| Slovenian (slovenščina) | Muznik, M. (2012). Fonološki razvoj otrok med 3. in 7. letom starosti (transkripcija govora) [Phonological development of children aged 3 to 7 years (transcription of speech)]. (Bachelor's thesis), Univerza V Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia. [in Slovenian] | 30 | C, CC | Thesis |
| Slovenian (slovenščina) | Globačnik, B. (1978). Javljanje glasov v govoru kot osnova za oceno artikulacije predšolskih otrok [Assessing the speech and articulation of preschool children]. (thesis). Univerza v Zagrebu, Ljubljana, Slovenia. [in Slovenian] | 60 | C, CC | Thesis |
| Slovenian (slovenščina) (Maribor) | Marin, A. (2013). Fonološki (govorni) razvoj otrok med 2;5. in 5;7. letom starosti : transkripcija govora [Phonological development of children aged 2;5 to 5;7: Speech transcription]. (Bachelor's thesis), Univerza V Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia. [in Slovenian] | 70 | C | Thesis |
| Spanish (Español) | Melgar de Gonzalez, M. (1976). Como detectar al niño con problemas del habla [Identifying the child with speech problems]. Mexico City, Mexico: Trillas. | Book | ||
| Spanish (Español) – Mandarin – Taiwanese | Yang, H.-Y., & Zhu Hua. (2010). The phonological development of a trilingual child: Facts and factors. International Journal of Bilingualism, 14(1), 105-126. | 1 | Journal article | |
| Spanish (Español) (Argentinian) | Miranda, A. R. M. (2003). A representação das consoantes róticas nos sitemas de crianças brasileiras e argentinas [The representation of rhotics in Brazilian and Argentinian children's language systems]. Letras de Hoje, 38(2), 111-122. [in Portuguese] | 116 (6+110) | C | Journal article |
| Spanish (Español) (Chilean) | Vivar, P. A. V. (2009). Evaluación de grupos consonanticos de ataque complejo en un grupo de niños de la ciudad de Concepción con prueba articulatoria CEFI. Onomázein, 20(2), 33-44. [in Spanish] | 72 | CC | Journal article |
| Spanish (Español) (Dominican & Puerto Rican) – English | Fabiano-Smith, L., & Goldstein, B. A. (2010). Early-, middle-, and late-developing sounds in monolingual and bilingual children: An exploratory investigation. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 19(1), 66-77. | 24 (8+8+8) | C | Journal article |
| Spanish (Español) – English | Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. E., Kester, E. S., Davis, B. L., & Peña, E. D. (2008). English speech sound development in preschool-aged children from bilingual English-Spanish environments. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 39(3), 314-328. | 33 (23+10) | C, CC | Journal article |
| Spanish (Español) (Dominican) | De la Fuenta, M. T. (1985). The order of acquisition of Spanish consonant phonemes by monolingual Spanish speaking children between the ages of 2.0 and 6.5. (Doctoral dissertation), Georgetown University, Washington DC. | 55 | C | Thesis |
| Spanish (Español) (Mexican) | Macken, M. A. (1975). The acquisition of intervocalic consonants in Mexican Spanish: A cross-sectional study based on imitation data. Papers and Reports on Child Language Development, 9(Apr), 29-42. | 16 | C | Journal article |
| Spanish (Español) (Mexican) | Linares, T. A. (1981). Articulation skills in Spanish-speaking children. In R. Padilla (Ed.), Ethnoperspectives in bilingual education research: Bilingual education technology (pp. 363-367). Ypsilanti, MI: Eastern Michigan University Press. | 245 (97+148) | C | Book chapter |
| Spanish (Español) (Mexican) | Jimenez, B. C. (1987). Acquisition of Spanish consonants in children aged 3-5 years, 7 months. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 18(4), 357-363. | 120 | C | Journal article |
| Spanish (Español) (Mexican) | Acevedo, M. A. (1993). Development of Spanish consonants in preschool children. Journal of Childhood Communication Disorders, 15(2), 9-15. | 120 | C, PCC | Journal article |
| Spanish (Español) (Mexican) - English | Ermey, J. (1978). The acquisition of English consonant sounds by Spanish speaking Mexican-American children four to eight years of age. (Master's thesis), Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas. | 500 | C, CC | Thesis |
| Spanish (Español) (Mexican) – English (American) | Ruiz-Felter, R., Cooperson, S. J., Bedore, L. M., & Peña, E. D. (in press). Influence of current input–output and age of first exposure on phonological acquisition in early bilingual Spanish–English-speaking kindergarteners. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders. | 91 | C, PCC, PVC | Journal article |
| Swahili | Gangji, N., Pascoe, M., & Smouse, M. (2014). Swahili speech development: Preliminary normative data from typically developing pre-school children in Tanzania. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 50(2), 151-164. | 24 | C, CC, V, PCC, PVC | Journal article |
| Swedish (Svenska) | Engstrand, O., Williams, K., & Strömqvist, S. (1991). Acquisition of the Swedish tonal word accent contrast. In O. Engstrand, C. Kylander & M. Dufberg (Eds.), Phonetic Experimental Research, Institute of Linguistics, University of Stockholm (PERILUS) No. XII (pp. 189-193). Stockholm, Sweden: Department of Phonetics, University of Stockholm. | 5 | T | Book chapter |
| Swedish (Svenska) | Klintö, K., Eva Kristina, S., Olsson, M., Flynn, T., Svensson, H., & Lohmander, A. (2014). Phonology in Swedish-speaking 3-year-olds born with cleft lip and palate and the relationship with consonant production at 18 months. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 49(2), 240-254. | 20 | PCC | Journal article |
| Swedish (Svenska) | Nilsson, K., & Norberg, A. (2013). Normering av svenska 3-åringars prestation gällande artikulation, nasalitet och fonologi på SVenskt Artikulations- och NasalitetsTEst (SVANTE) – en utökning. Karolinska Institutet. [in Swedish] | 50 | C, PCC | Journal article |
| Swedish (Svenska) | Roug, L., Landberg, I., & Lundberg, L.-J. (1989). Phonetic development in early infancy: A study of four Swedish children during the first eighteen months of life. Journal of Child Language, 16, 19-40. | 4 | C, V | Journal article |
| Taiwanese – Mandarin – Spanish | Yang, H.-Y., & Zhu Hua. (2010). The phonological development of a trilingual child: Facts and factors. International Journal of Bilingualism, 14(1), 105-126 | 1 | Journal article | |
| Telugu | Chervela, N. (1981). Medial consonant cluster acquisition by Telugu children. Journal of Child Language, 8(1), 63-73. | 4 | CC | Journal article |
| Thai (ภาษาไทย) | Boonyathitisuk, P. (1982). Articulatory characteristics of kindergarten children aged three to four years eleven months in Bangkok. (Master's thesis), Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. [In Thai] | 400 | C | Thesis |
| Turkish (Türkçe) | Acarlar, F., and Ege, P. (1996). Türkçe kazanımda kullanılan fonolojik süreçlerin incelenmesi. [Phonological processes in the acquisition of Turkish] Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 38, 35–43. [in Turkish] | 20 | PCC | Journal article |
| Turkish (Türkçe) | Topbaş, S., & Yavaş, M. (2006). Phonological acquisition and disorders in Turkish. In Zhu Hua & B. Dodd, (Eds), Phonological development and disorders in children: A multilingual perspective (pp. 233–265). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. | 665 | C, CC, PCC | Book chapter |
| Turkish (Türkçe) | Topbaş, S., & Kopkalli-Yavuz, H. (2008). Reviewing sonority for word-final sonorant+obstruent consonant cluster development in Turkish. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 22(10-11), 871-880. | 350 | CC | Journal article |
| Turkish (Türkçe) | Topbaş, S. (1998). Konuşma sorunlu çocukların sesbilgisel çözümleme yöntemi ile değerlendirilmesi. [Assessment of speech disordered children by phonological analysis]. Eskişehir, Turkey: Anadolu University Press. [in Turkish] | Book | ||
| Turkish (Türkçe) | Topbaş, S. (1997). Phonological acquisition of Turkish children: Implications for phonological disorders. European Journal of Disorders of Communication, 32(4), 377-396. | 22 | C, CC | Journal article |
| Turkish (Türkçe) | Yalcinkaya, F., Muluk, N. B., & Budak, B. (2010). Speech Sounds Acquisition Evaluated by Speech Sound Development Test (SSDT) in Turkish-Speaking Children. Journal of International Advanced Otology, 6(1), 60-66. | 753 | C | Journal article |
| Turkish (Türkçe) (Standard) | Ege, P. (2010). Türkçe'deki Ünsüzlerin Edinimi: Bir Norm Çalışması [A normative study of consonant acquisition in Turkish]. Turk Psikoloji Dergisi, 25(65), 16-34. [in Turkish] | 1359 | C | Journal article |
| Vietnamese (Tiếng Việt) (Southern) | Nguyen Thi, L. K. (2011). Nội dung đánh giá khả năng phát âm âm tiết của trẻ mẫu giáo [Assessment content of syllable pronunciation ability in Vietnamese speaking preschoolers]. NGÔN NGỮ, 9. [in Vietnamese] | 298 | C | Journal article |
| Welsh (Cymraeg) – English | Ball, M. J., Müller, N., & Munro, S. (2001). The acquisition of the rhotic consonants by Welsh-English bilingual children. International Journal of Bilingualism, 5(1), 71-86. | 83 | C, PCC | Journal article |
| Welsh (Cymraeg) – English | Ball, M. J., Müller, N., & Munro, S. (2001). Patterns in the acquisition of the Welsh lateral fricative. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 15(1/2), 3-7. | 83 | C | Journal article |
| Welsh (Cymraeg) – English | Howells, G. H. (2012). The acquisition of word final consonant clusters in Welsh-English bilingual children. (Honour's thesis), Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, Wales. | 40 | CC | Thesis |
| Welsh (Cymraeg) – English | Munro, S., Ball, M. J., Müller, N., Duckworth, M., & Lyddy, F. (2005). Phonological acquisition in Welsh-English bilingual children. Journal of Multilingual Communication Disorders, 3(1), 24-49. | 83 | C | Journal article |
| Xhosa (isiXhosa) | Gxhilishe, S. (2004). The acquisition of clicks by Xhosa-speaking children. Per Linguam, 20(2), 1-12. | 10 | C | Journal article |
| Xhosa (isiXhosa) | Maphalala, Z., Pascoe, M., & Smouse, M. R. (2014). Phonological development of first language isiXhosa-speaking children aged 3;0–6;0 years: A descriptive cross-sectional study. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 28(3), 176-194. | 24 | C, V, PCC, PVC | Journal article |
| Xhosa (isiXhosa) | Maphalala, Z. (2012). Phonological development of first language isiXhosa-speaking children aged 3;0-6;0 years: A descriptive cross-sectional study. (Master's thesis), University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. | 24 | C, V, PCC, PVC | Thesis |
| Xhosa (isiXhosa) | Mowrer, D. E., & Burger, S. (1991). A comparative analysis of phonological acquisition of consonants in the speech of 2½-6-year-old Xhosa- and English-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 5(2), 139-164. | 140 (70+70) | C | Journal article |
| Xhosa (isiXhosa) (Cape Town) | Toumi, S. K., Gxhilishe, S., & Matomela, L. (2001). The acquisition of Xhosa phonemes. Per Linguam, 17(1), 14-23. | 10 | C, V | Journal article |
| Zulu (isiZulu) | Naidoo, Y., van der Merwe, A., Groenewald, E., & Naudé, E. (2005). Development of speech sounds and syllable structure of words in Zulu-speaking children. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, 23(1), 59-79. | 18 | C, CC, V | Journal article |
*Age of acquisition data for C, consonants; CC, consonant clusters; V, vowels; T, tones; PCC, percentage of consonants correct; PVC, percentage of vowels correct; PPC, percentage of phonemes correct; WWP, whole word proximity.
Dr Kathryn Crowe and members of the International Expert Panel on Multilingual Children's Speech provided support for the creation of the information on this page.
Goldstein, B. A., & McLeod, S. (2012). Typical and atypical multilingual speech acquisition. In S. McLeod & B. A. Goldstein (Eds.), Multilingual aspects of speech sound disorders in children (pp. 84-100). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
McLeod, S. (Ed.). (2007). The international guide to speech acquisition. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.
McLeod, S. (2010). Laying the foundations for multilingual acquisition: An international overview of speech acquisition. In M. Cruz-Ferreira (Ed.), Multilingual norms (pp. 53-71). Frankfurt: Peter Lang Publishing.
McLeod, S. (2016). Multilingual speech acquisition studies. Bathurst, NSW, Australia: Charles Sturt University. Retrieved from http://www.csu.edu.au/research/multilingual-speech/speech-acq-studies