Multilingual Children's Speech
| Language (Dialect) | Reference | No. of participants | Acquisition data | Access information | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Afrikaans | Lotter, E. (1974). Die ontwikkeling en toetsing van artikulasievermoëns by die Afrikaanssprekende kind [The development and assessment of articulation abilities in Afrikaans-speaking children]. Journal of the South African Speech and Hearing Association, 21(1), 33–42. | 999 | C, CC | ||
Afrikaans | Pringle, C., Le Roux, M., Geertsema, S., & Graham, M. (2022). Die verwerwing van Afrikaanse foneme deur kinders 24–72 maande [The acquisition of Afrikaans phonemes in children aged 24-72 months]. Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe [Journal of Humanities], 62(2), 330–362. | 120 | C, CC, V | ||
Akan | Amoako, W. K. (2020). Assessing phonological development among Akan-speaking children. (MA thesis, University of British Columbia). | 9 | C, V, T, WWM | ||
Akan | Amoako, W. K., & Stemberger, J. P. (2022a). Acquisition of variability in Akan phonology: Labio-palatalized consonants and front rounded vowels. Journal of Child Language, 49 (5), 979–1007. | 9 | C | ||
Akan | Amoako, W. K., Stemberger, J. P., Bernhardt, B. H., & Tessier, A. M. (2020). Acquisition of consonants among typically developing Akan-speaking children: A preCcliminary report. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 22(6), 626–636. | 9 | C | ||
Arabic -Egyptian | Abou-Elsaad, T., Afsah, O., & Rabea, M. (2019). Identification of phonological processes in Arabic–speaking Egyptian children by single-word test. Journal of Communication Disorders, 77, 80-93. | 150 | phonological processes | ||
Arabic -Jordanian | Amayreh, M. M. (2003). Completion of the consonant inventory of Arabic. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46(3), 517-529. | 60 | C | ||
Arabic -Jordanian | Amayreh, M. M., & Dyson, A. T. (1998). The acquisition of Arabic consonants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41(3), 642-653. | 180 | C, PCC | ||
Arabic -Jordanian | Amayreh, M. M., & Dyson, A. T. (2000). Phonetic inventories of young Arabic-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 14(3), 193-215. | 13 | C, V | ||
Arabic -Jordanian | Dyson, A. T., & Amayreh, M. M. (2000). Phonological errors and sound changes in Arabic-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 14(2), 79-109. | 50 | C | ||
Arabic -Jordanian | Hamdan, J. M., & Amayreh, M. M. (2007). Consonant profile of Arabic-speaking school-age children in Jordan. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 59(2), 55-64. | 100 | C | ||
Arabic -Lebanese | Assaf, J. (2016). Étude des erreurs phonologiques chez les enfants libanais bilingues à développement typique et ayant un trouble spécifique du langage âgés entre 3 ans et demi et 7 ans et demi. Master’s thesis, Université Saint-Joseph, Lebanon. | 226 | C, CC, V, PCC, PVC, pMLU | - | |
Arabic -Lebanese | Chami, N., Kern, S. & Messarra, C. (2020). Development of phonetic complexity in multilingual Lebanese children. In E. Babatsouli (Ed.). Proceedings of the International Symposium on Monolingual and Bilingual Speech (pp. 14-20). University of Louisiana at Lafayette | 16 | C, CC, V | - | |
Arabic -Lebanese | Chamoun, Z. (2016). L’effet de la complexité phonologique sur le développement de la phonologie chez les enfants libanais bilingues à développement typique âgés entre 3 ans et demi et 7 ans et demi. Master’s thesis, Université Saint-Joseph, Lebanon. | 212 | C, CC, V, PCC, PVC, pMLU | - | |
Arabic -Lebanese | Khattab, G. (2006). Phonological acquisition in Arabic–English bilingual children. In Z. Hua and B. Dodd (Eds.), Phonological development and disorders: A cross-linguistic perspective (pp. 383–412). Multilingual Matters. | 3 | C | - | |
Arabic -Lebanese | Khattab, G. & Al-Tamimi, J. (2015). The acquisition of gemination in Lebanese-Arabic children. 18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences., Glasgow, United Kingdom. | 5 | C | ||
Arabic -Lebanese | Koury, Y. (2018). L’effet de la complexité phonologique sur les productions des enfants libanais bilingues, ayant un trouble du langage oral, âgés entre 3 ans et demi et 7 ans et demi, à partir de l’épreuve de répétition de non-mots. Master’s thesis, Université Saint-Joseph, Lebanon. | 82 | C, CC, V, PCC, PVC, pMLU | - | |
Arabic -Lebanese | Salameh, E. K., Nettelbladt, U., & Norlin, K. (2003). Assessing phonologies in bilingual Swedish-Arabic children with and without language impairment. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 19(3),338–364. | 30 | C, CC, phonological processes | ||
Arabic -Egyptian | Bahgat M. B. A., Khaled A. M., Adel Aziz A, Osman D.M. & Azab S. N. (2012). Studying some elicited verbal prosodic patterns in Egyptian children. The Egyptian Journal of Otolaryngology, 28, 242–250 | 40 | Prosody | ||
Arabic -Egyptian | Elrefaie, D. A., Hegazi, M. A. E. F., El-Mahallawi, M. M., & Khodeir, M. S. (2021). Descriptive analysis of the development of the Arabic speech sounds among typically developing colloquial Egyptian Arabic-speaking children. The Egyptian Journal of Otolaryngology, 37(1), 1-11. | 360 | C, V | ||
Arabic -Egyptian | Saleh, M., Shoeib, R., Hegazi, M., & Ali, P. (2007). Early phonological development in Arabic Egyptian children: 12–30 months. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 59(5), 234-240. | 30 | C, phonological processes | ||
Arabic - Kuwaiti | Alqattan, S. (2015). Early phonological acquisition by Kuwaiti Arabic children [Unpublished doctoral dissertation], University of Newcastle upon Tyne. | 70 | C | ||
Arabic - Kuwaiti | Ayyad, H. (2011). Phonological development of typically developing Kuwaiti Arabic-speaking preschoolers. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of British Columbia, Canada. | 80 | C, word shapes | ||
Arabic - Kuwaiti | Ayyad, H., & Bernhardt, B. M. (2009). Phonological development in Kuwaiti Arabic: A preliminary report. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 23(11), 794–807. | 2 (+ 1 SSD, hearing loss) | C, word shapes | ||
Arabic - Kuwaiti | Ayyad, H., Bernhardt, B.M., & Stemberger, J.P. (2016). Kuwaiti Arabic: Acquisition of singleton consonants. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 51(5), 531-545. | 80 | C, word shapes | ||
Azerbaijani/ | Mirzaee. M., & Khoshhal, Z. (2019). Development of syllable Structure in Azeri-speaking children. Pajouhan Scientific Journal, 18(1), 30–36. | 17 | Syllable structure | ||
Azerbaijani/ | Nojavan-Pirehyousefan, H., Zarifian, T., Ahmadi, A., & Pascoe, M. (2022). Speech sound acquisition in Azeri Turkish-speaking children in Iran. Journal of Communication Disorders, 99, 106244. | 150 | C, V, WWP, PCC, PVC | ||
Bulgarian Spanish - Granada Portuguese - European Icelandic Slovenian German French - Canadian | Bernhardt, B. May, Stemberger, J. P., Bérubé, D., Ciocca, V., Freitas, M. J., Ignatova, D., Kogovšek, D., Lundeborg Hammarström, I., Másdóttir, T., Ozbič, M., Perez, D., Ramalho, M.. (2020). 12. Identification of protracted phonological development across languages: the whole word match and basic mismatch measures. In E. Babatsouli & M. J. Ball (Eds.). An anthology of bilingual child phonology (pp. 274-308). Multilingual Matters. | 333 | WWM | ||
Bulgarian | Bernhardt, et al. (2019). Bulgarian consonant acquisition in preschoolers with typical versus protracted phonological development. Journal of Monolingual and Bilingual Speech, 1(2), 143–181. | 60 | C, PCM | ||
Bulgarian | Blajev & Popova, (1995). Чудесата на детската реч. [The wonders of children’s speech]. Tilia. | 111 | C | - | |
Bulgarian | Georgov (1908). Развой на детския говор. [Development of children’s speech]. Periodical Journal of the Bulgarian Book Society, IXIX, 253–279. | 2 | Mismatches | - | |
Bulgarian | Ignatova, D., Bernhardt, B. M., & Marinova-Todd, S. (2022). The influence of word stress on segmental and cluster match: A Bulgarian three-year-old with protracted phonological development. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 36(8), 738–750. | 1 | С, СС, PVM, PCM, WWM, WSM | ||
Bulgarian | Ignatova, D., Bernhardt, B. M., Marinova-Todd, S., & Stemberger, J. P. (2018). Word-initial trill clusters in children with typical versus protracted phonological development: Bulgarian. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 32(5-6), 506-522. | 60 | CC, (C), WWM | ||
Bulgarian | Shtereva (2011). Universality and specificity of phonological awareness by Bulgarian children. Journal of International Scientific Publication: Educational Alternatives, 9(2), 181–190. | 227 | Phonological awareness, rapid automatic naming | - | |
Bulgarian | Stoyanova (2011). Ранно езиково развитие., От първите звукови последователности до многословни изказвания. [Early language development: From the first sound sequences to long utterances]. Romel. | 5 | C, CC, WWP | - | |
Bulgarian | Todorova (2013). Специфични артикулационни нарушения през детството. [Specific articulation disabilities in childhood]. University Press of New Bulgarian University. | 610 | Mismatches | - | |
Bulgarian | Tsenova (1997). Теоретични и клинични аспекти на особеностите в развитието на артикулацията в предучилищна възраст: ІІ. Честота на разпространение на вариантите в развитието на нормална и патологична артикулация. [Theoretical and clinical aspects of the peculiarities in the development of articulation in preschool age: ІІ. Frequency of distribution of variants in the development of normal and pathological articulation]. Journal of Special Education, 2, 72–81. | 1301 | Mismatches | - | |
Cantonese | Cheung, P. (1990). The acquisition of Cantonese phonology in Hong Kong: A cross-sectional study [Unpublished Honours thesis]. University College London. | 155 | C, V, T | - | |
Cantonese | Mok, P. P. K., Li, V. G., & Fung, H. S. H. (2020). Development of phonetic contrasts in Cantonese tone acquisition. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63(1), 95-108. | 159 | T (acoustic) | ||
Cantonese | So, L. K., & Dodd, B. J. (1995). The acquisition of phonology by Cantonese-speaking children. Journal of Child Language, 22(3), 473-495. | 268 | C, V, T | ||
Cantonese | Stokes, S. F., & To, C. K. S. (2002). Feature development in Cantonese. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 16(6), 443-459. | 122 | C (distinctive features) | ||
Cantonese | Stokes, S. F., & Wong, I. M. (2002). Vowel and diphthong development in Cantonese-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 16(8), 597-617. | 40 | V (distinctive features) | ||
Cantonese | Tse, A. C. Y. (1993). The development of a phonological System in Cantonese: A case report. In The proceedings of the twenty-fifth annual Child Language Research Forum (pp. 287-296). Center for the Study of Language and Information. | 1 | C, V, T | - | |
Cantonese | Tse, J. K. P. (1978). Tone acquisition in Cantonese: A longitudinal case study. Journal of Child Language, 5(2), 191-204. | 1 | T | ||
Cantonese | Wong, W., & Stokes, S. F. (2001). Cantonese consonantal development: Towards a nonlinear account. Journal of Child Language, 28(1), 195-212. | 8 | C (distinctive features) | ||
Danish | Clausen, M. C., & Fox-Boyer, A. V. (2017). The phonological development of Danish-speaking children: A normative cross-sectional study. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 31(6), 440-458. | 443 | C, V, CC, PCC, PVC | ||
Danish | Grønborg, A., Epstein, A. G., Køhler, I., Olsen, H. S., Top-Jensen, K., & Rosenbeck, B. (1983). A standardized Danish phonological Test. Nordisk tidsskrift for logopædi og foniatri, 8(1), 20-34. | 1176 | C, CC | - | |
Danish | Holmer, D., & Pedersen, S. (2017). “Skal han ku’ sige k”? En empirisk undersøgelse af konsonantinventaret hos dansksprogede børn på to år undersøgt med TEFF-2 [“Should he be able to say k?” An empirical investigation of the consonant inventory in Danish-speaking 2-year-olds assessed with the TEFF-2] [Master’s thesis, University of Copenhagen]. Copenhagen, Denmark. | 98 | C, CC, PCC | - | |
Danish | Jørgensen, P. E., & Bøgh, M. S. (2017). Den fonologiske udvikling hos danske børn i alderen 2;0-2;5 år [The phonological development in Danish-speaking children aged 2;0-2;5 years] [Master’s Thesis, University of Southern Denmark]. Odense, Denmark. | 54 | C, V, CC, PCC, PVC | - | |
Danish | Kjærbæk, L., Thomsen, D. B., Lambertsen, C., & Basbøll, H. (2015). Sonority and early words: The sonority syllable model applied to an acquisitional project with Danish children. Italian Journal of Linguistics, 27(1), 61-84. | 2 | C, CC | ||
Danish | Mahler, R., & Bødker, A. (2012). Fonologisk tilegnelsesrækkefølge af enkeltstående ordinitiale konsonantfonemer på dansk - en longitudinel undersøgelse af et tvillingepar i alderen 1;2.16 - 4;0.5 år [The phonological order of acquisition of word-initial consonants in Danish - a longitudinal investigation of a twin pair aged 1;2.16-4;0.5 years]. Working Papers in Language Acquisition, 16. | 2 | C | - | |
Danish | Willadsen, E. (2007). From babbling to meaningful speech in Danish children born with and without cleft lip and palate [PhD Thesis, University of Aarhus]. Aarhus, Denmark. | 41 | C, PCC | - | |
Drehu + French | Monnin, J. (2010). Influence de la langue ambiante sur l’acquisition phonologique: Une comparaison du français et du drehu [The impact of language environment on phonological acquisition: A comparison of French and Drehu]. Université de Grenoble; Université de Nouvelle Calédonie. [in French] | C, CC | |||
Dutch | Beers, M. (1995). The phonology of normally developing and language impaired children. [PhD thesis]. University of Amsterdam. | 90 | C, V | - | |
Dutch | Fikkert, P. (1994). On the acquisition of prosodic structure. [PhD thesis]. University of Leiden. | 12 | Acquisition of syllable structure and stress | - | |
Dutch | Jongstra, W. (2003). Variation in reduction strategies of Dutch word-initial consonant clusters. [PhD thesis]. University of Toronto. | 45 | CC | - | |
Dutch | Levelt, C. C. (1994). On the acquisition of place. HIL dissertations in Linguistics 8, The Hague: HAG. | 12 | V | - | |
Dutch | Stes, R. (1997). Articulatiestoornissen; fenomenen, oorzaken en behandeling, ACCO. | 480 | C, CC, V | - | |
Dutch | Van Haaften, L., Diepeveen, S., van den Engel-Hoek, E., de Swart, B., & Maassen, B. (2020). Speech sound development in typically developing 2–7-year-old Dutch- speaking children: A normative cross-sectional study. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 55(6), 971–987. | 1503 | C, V, PCC, PVC, syllable structure, phonological processes | ||
English | Dodd, B., Holm, A., Hua, Z., & Crosbie, S. (2003). Phonological development: A normative study of British-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 17(8), 617–643. | 71 from Scotland, 684 total | C, V, PCC, PVC, PPC | ||
English - African American | Stockman, I. J. (2006b). Evidence for a minimal competence core of consonant sounds in the speech of African American children: A preliminary study. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 20(10), 723–749. | 7 | C, CC | ||
English - African American + General American | Horton–Ikard, R., & Weismer, S. E. (2005). Distinguishing African American English from developmental errors in the language production of toddlers. Applied Psycholinguistics, 26(4), 597-620. | 44 (22 African American English, 22 General American English) | C | ||
English - African American + General American | Macrae, T., Hoge, R., & Farquharson, K. (2022). Consonant cluster productions in preschool children who speak African American English. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 65(4), 1370-1385. | 22 | CC | ||
English - African American + General American | Pearson, B. Z., Velleman, S. L., Bryant, T. J., & Charko, T. (2009). Phonological milestones for African American English-speaking children learning mainstream American English as a second dialect Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 40(3), 229–244. | 854 (537 African American English, 317 General American English) | C, CC | ||
English - African American + General American | Pollock, K. E. & Berni, M. C. (1997). Acquisition of /r/ by African American and European American children. Presented at American Speech Language and Hearing Association Convention, Boston, MA. | 68 (34 African American English, 34 General American English) | C, V | ||
English - African American + General American | Pollock, K. E., & Berni, M. C. (2003). Incidence of non-rhotic vowel errors in children: Data from the Memphis vowel project. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 17(4-5),393-401. | 314 (164 (typical: 77 African American English, 87 General American English; atypical 38 African American English, 111General American English) | V, PCC, PVC | ||
English - African American + General American | Seymour, H. N., & Ralabate, P. K. (1985). The acquisition of a phonologic feature of Black English. Journal of Communication Disorders, 18(2), 135–148. | 80 (40 African American English, 40 General American English) | C | ||
English - African American + General American | Seymour, H. N., & Seymour, C. (1981). Black English and Standard American English contrasts in consonantal development for four- and five-year-olds. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 46(3), 276–280. | 160 (80 African American English, 80 General American English) | C | ||
English - Appalachian | Davis, E. D. (1998). An examination of Appalachian dialectal syntactic and phonological features used by school-age children in east Tennessee. Unpublished master’s thesis. University of Tennessee, Knoxville. | 42 | Phonological features | ||
English - Appalachian | Flipsen, P., Jr, & Parker, R. G. (2006, June). Consonant accuracy in the speech of children acquiring Appalachian English (AppE). Presentation at the Child Phonology Group Meeting, Edmonton, Canada. | 8 | PCC, PVC | - | |
English - Australian | Ballard, K. J., Djaja, D., Arciuli, J., James, D. G. H., & van Doorn, J. (2012). Developmental trajectory for production of prosody: Lexical stress contrastivity in children ages 3 to 7 years and in adults. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 55(6), 1822–1835. | 73 (+24 adults) | prosody | ||
English - Australian | Block, S., & Killen, D. (1996). Speech rates of Australian English-speaking children and adults. Australian Journal of Human Communication Disorders, 24(1), 39–44. | 120 | Speech rate | ||
English - Australian | Chirlian, N. S., & Sharpley, C. F. (1982). Children’s articulation development: Some regional differences. Australian Journal of Human Communication Disorders, 10, 23–30. | 1357 | C | ||
English - Australian | Claessen, M., Beattie, T., Roberts, R., Leitao, S., Whitworth, A., & Dodd, B. (2017). Is two too early? Assessing toddlers’ phonology. Speech, Language and Hearing, 20(2), 91–101. | 69 | phonological awareness | ||
English - Australian | Claessen, M., Leitão, S., & Barrett, N. (2010). Investigating children’s ability to reflect on stored phonological representations: The Silent Deletion of Phonemes Task. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 45(4), 411–423. | 18 Australian + 24 British | PCC, PVC, phonological processes | ||
English - Australian | Dodd, B., & Gillon, G. (2001). Exploring the relationship between phonological awareness, speech impairment and literacy. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 3, 139–147. | Summary of data | phonological awareness | ||
English - Australian | Dodd, B., & McIntosh, B. (2010). Two-year-old phonology: Impact of input, motor and cognitive abilities on development. Journal of Child Language, 37(5), 1027–1046. | 62 | PCC, PVC, PPC, perception, DDK, oromotor movements | ||
English - Australian | Hearnshaw, S., Baker, E., & Munro, N. (2018). The speech perception skills of children with and without speech sound disorder. Journal of Communication Disorders, 71, 61–71. | 25 | perception | ||
English - Australian | Hearnshaw, S., Baker, E., Pomper, R., McGregor, K. K., Edwards, J., & Munro, N. (2023). The relationship between speech perception, speech production, and vocabulary abilities in children: Insights from by-group and continuous analyses. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 66(4), 1173–1191. | 31 (+ 30 with SSD) | perception; vocabulary | ||
English - Australian | Hearnshaw, S., Baker, E., Pomper, R., McGregor, K. K., Edwards, J., & Munro, N. (2024). I remembered the chorm! Word learning abilities of children with and without phonological impairment. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 59(3), 913-931. | 31 (+ 18 with SSD) | perception, word learning | ||
English - Australian | Holm, A., Sanchez, K., Crosbie, S., Morgan, A., & Dodd, B. (2022). Is children’s speech development changing? Preliminary evidence from Australian English-speaking 3-year-olds. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 24(4), 375–384. | 99 | C, phonological patterns | ||
English - Australian | Holm, A., van Reyk, O., Crosbie, S., De Bono, S., Morgan, A., & Dodd, B. (2022). Preschool children’s consistency of word production. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 37(3), 223–241. | 96 | Word consistency | ||
English - Australian | Ingram, J., Pittman, J., & Newman, D. (1985). Developmental and sociolinguistic variation in the speech of Brisbane school children. Australian Journal of Linguistics, 5, 233–246. | 97 | phonological patterns | ||
English - Australian | James, D. G. H. (2001). The use of phonological processes in Australian children aged 2 to 7:11 years. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 3, 109–128. | 50 | phonological patterns | ||
English - Australian | James, D. G. H., van Doorn, J., & McLeod, S. (2001). Vowel production in mono-, di- and polysyllabic words in children aged 3;0 to 7;11 years. In L. Wilson & S. Hewat (Eds.), Proceedings of the Speech Pathology Australia National Conference (pp. 127–136). Speech Pathology Australia. | 354 | V | - | |
English - Australian | James, D., van Doorn, J., & McLeod, S. (2002). Segment production in mono-, di- and polysyllabic words in children aged 3–7 years. In F. Windsor, L. Kelly, & N. Hewlett (Eds.), Investigations in clinical phonetics and linguistics (pp. 287–298). Lawrence Erlbaum. | 354 | C | ||
English - Australian | James, D. G. H., van Doorn, J., McLeod, S., & Esterman, A. (2008). Patterns of consonant deletion in typically developing children aged 3 to 7 years. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10(3), 179–192. | 240 | phonological patterns | ||
English - Australian | Kilminster, M. G. E., & Laird, E. M. (1978). Articulation development in children aged three to nine years. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 6, 23–30. | 1756 | C | ||
English - Australian | Lin, S., & Demuth, K. (2015). Children’s acquisition of English onset and coda /l/: Articulatory evidence. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 58(1), 13–27. | 25 | /l/ | ||
English - Australian | McIntosh, B., & Dodd, B. (2008). Two-year-olds’ phonological acquisition: Normative data. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10(6), 460–469. | 62 | C, phonological processes | ||
English - Australian | McLeod, S., & Arciuli, J. (2009). School-aged children’s production of /s/ and /r/ consonant clusters. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 61(6), 336–341. | 74 | CC | ||
English - Australian | McLeod, S., & Hewett, S. R. (2008). Variability in the production of words containing consonant clusters by typical two- and three-year-old children. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 60, 163–172. | 16 | CC | ||
English - Australian | McLeod, S., Crowe, K., & Shahaeian, A. (2015). Intelligibility in Context Scale: Normative and validation data for English-speaking preschoolers. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 46(3), 266–276. | 803 | intell | ||
English - Australian | McLeod, S., van Doorn, J., & Reed, V. A. (2001). Consonant cluster development in two-year-olds: General trends and individual difference. Journal of Speech, Language, Hearing Research, 44, 1144–1171. | 16 | CC | ||
English - Australian | Neam, S. Y., Baker, E., Hodges, R., & Munro, N. (2020). Speech production abilities of 4- to 5-year-old children with and without a history of late talking: The tricky tyrannosaurus. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 22(2), 184–195. | 11 typical (+13 late talkers) | PCC, PVC, PPC, phonological processes, WWI, polysyllables | ||
English - Australian | Sanchez, K., Boyce, J. O., Mei, C., St John, M., Smith, J., Leembruggen, L., Mills, S., Spittle, A. J., & Morgan, A. T. (2020). Communication in children born very preterm: A prospective cohort study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 62, 506–512. | 105 (+112 preterm) | PCC, phonological processes | ||
English - Australian | Waring, R., Fisher, J., & Aitkin, N. (2001). The Articulation Survey: Putting numbers to it. In L. Wilson. & S. Hewat. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2001 Speech Pathology Australia national conference: Evidence and innovation (pp. 145–151). Speech Pathology Australia. | 299 | C, CC | - | |
English - Canadian | Kemp, N., Scott, J., Bernhardt, B. M., Johnson, C. E., Siegel, L. S., & Werker, J. F. (2017). Minimal pair word learning and vocabulary size: Links with later language skills. Applied Psycholinguistics, 38(2), 289-314. | 65 | V, C, word length, word stress | ||
English - Canadian | Mason, G. M., Goldstein, M. H., & Schwade, J. A. (2019). The role of multisensory development in early language learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 183, 48-64. | 22 | Lexical match, word structure, features | ||
English - Canadian | Rvachew, S. (2007). Phonological processing and reading in children with speech sound disorders. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 16, 260-270. | 65 | C, phonological awareness, speech perception | ||
English - General American English | Crowe, K., & McLeod, S. (2020). Children’s English consonant acquisition in the United States: A review. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 29(4), 2155–2169. | 18,907 (review) | C, V, CC | ||
English - General American English | Arlt, P. B., & Goodban, M. T. (1976). A comparative study of articulation acquisition as based on a study of 240 normals, aged three to six. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 7, 173–180. | 240 | C | ||
English - General American English | Dyson, A. T. (1988). Phonetic inventories of 2- and 3-year-old children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 53, 89–93. | 20 | C | ||
English - General American English | Haelsig, P. C., & Madison, C. L. (1986). A study of phonological processes exhibited by 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 17, 107–114. | 50 | phonological processes | ||
English - General American English | Hoffman, K. A. (1982). Speech sound acquisition and natural process occurrence in the continuous speech of three-to-six-year-old children. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison. | 72 | PCC, phonological processes | - | |
English - General American English | Hustad, K. C., Mahr, T. J., Natzke, P. E., & Rathouz, P. J. (2021). Speech development between 30 and 119 months in typical children I: Intelligibility growth curves for single words and multiword productions. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 64(10), 3707-3719. \ | 538 | Intell | ||
English - General American English | Irwin, M. V., & Wong, S. P. (1983). Phonological development in children 18 to 72 months. Southern Illinois University Press. | 100 | C, V, features | - | |
English - General American English | Kehoe, M. (1997). Stress error patterns in English-speaking children’s word productions. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 11, 389–409. | 18 | Stress | ||
English - General American English | Lonigan, C. J., Burgess, S. R., Anthony, J. L., & Barker, T. A. (1998). Development of phonological sensitivity in 2- to 5-year-old children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 294–311. | 356 | Phonological sensitivity | ||
English - General American English | Lowe, R. J., Knutson, P. J., & Monson, M. A. (1985). Incidence of fronting in preschool children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 16, 119–123. | 1048 | phonological processes | ||
English - General American English | Olmsted, D. (1971). Out of the mouth of babes: Earliest stages in language learning. Mouton. | 100 | C, mismatch | ||
English - General American English | Otomo, K., & Stoel-Gammon, C. (1992). The acquisition of unrounded vowels in English. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 35, 604–616. | 6 | V | ||
English - General American English | Pollock, K. E. (2002). Identification of vowel errors: Methodological issues and preliminary data from the Memphis Vowel Project. In M. J. Ball & F. E. Gibbon (Eds.), Vowel disorders (pp. 83–113). Butterworth Heinemann. | 162 in control group | PCC | - | |
English - General American English | Pollock, K. E., & Berni, M. C. (2003). Incidence of non-rhotic vowel errors in children: Data from the Memphis Vowel Project. Clinical Linguistic and Phonetics, 17, 393–401. | 165 in control group | PVC, mismatches | ||
English - General American English | Poole, I. (1934). The genetic development of articulation of consonant sounds in children’s speech. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. | 140 | C | ||
English - General American English | Prather, E. M., Hedrick, D. L., & Kern, C. A. (1975). Articulation development in children aged 2–4 years. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 40, 179–191. | 147 | C | ||
English - General American English | Preisser, D. A., Hodson, B. W., & Paden, E. P. (1988). Developmental phonology: 18–29 months. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 53, 125–130. | 60 | phonological processes | ||
English - General American English | Robb, M. P., & Bleile, K. M. (1994). Consonant inventories of young children from 8 to 25 months. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 8, 295–320. | 7 | C | ||
English - General American English | Robbins, J., & Klee, T. (1987). Clinical assessment of oropharyngeal motor development in young children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 52, 271–277. | Oro-motor | |||
English - General American English | Roberts, J. E., Burchinal, M., & Footo, M. M. (1990). Phonological process decline from 2 1/2 to 8 years. Journal of Communication Disorders, 23, 205–217. | 145 | phonological processes | ||
English - General American English | Sax, M. R. (1972). A longitudinal study of articulation change. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 3, 41–48. | 417 | C | ||
English - General American English | Selby, J. C., Robb, M. P., & Gilbert, H. R. (2000). Normal vowel articulations between 15 and 30 months of age. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 14, 255–265. | 4 | V | ||
English - General American English | Smit, A. B. (1993a). Phonologic error distributions in the Iowa-Nebraska Articulation Norms Project: Consonant singletons. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 533–547. | 1014 | C | ||
English - General American English | Smit, A. B. (1993b). Phonologic error distributions in the Iowa-Nebraska Articulation Norms Project: Word-initial consonant clusters. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 931–947. | 1014 | CC | ||
English - General American English | Smit, A. B., Hand, L., Freilinger, J. J., Bernthal, J. E., & Bird, A. (1990). The Iowa Articulation Norms Project and its Nebraska replication. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 55, 779–798. | 997 | C, CC | ||
English - General American English | Snow, D. (1994). Phrase-final syllable lengthening and intonation in early child speech. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 37, 831–840. | 9 | Prosody | ||
English - General American English | Snow, K. (1963). A detailed analysis of articulation responses of ‘normal’ first grade children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 6(3), 277-290. | 438 | C, mismatches | ||
English - General American English | Soriano, J. U., Mahr, T. J., Rathouz, P. J., & Hustad, K. C. (2023). Intelligibility in Context Scale: Growth curves for typically developing English-speaking children between ages 2;6 and 9;11. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 32(5), 2021-2039. | 545 | Intell | ||
English - General American English | Stoel-Gammon, C. (1985). Phonetic inventories, 15-24 months: A longitudinal study. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 28, 505–512. | 34 | C | ||
English - General American English | Stoel-Gammon, C. (1987). Phonological skills of 2-year-olds. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 18, 323–329. | 34 | C, PCC, Word-and-syllable shape inventory | ||
English - General American English | Templin, M. C. (1957). Certain language skills in children (Monograph Series No. 26). University of Minnesota, The Institute of Child Welfare. | 480 | C, CC, V | ||
English - General American English | Watson, M. M., & Scukanec, G. P. (1997a). Phonological changes in the speech of two-year-olds: A longitudinal investigation. Infant-Toddler Intervention, 7, 67–77. | 12 | PCC, phonological processes | ||
English - General American English | Watson, M. M., & Scukanec, G. P. (1997b). Profiling the phonological abilities of 2-year-olds: A longitudinal investigation. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 13, 3–14. | 12 | C, PCC | ||
English - General American English | Wellman, B. L., Case, I. M., Mengert I. G., & Bradbury, D. E. (1931). Speech sounds of young children. University of Iowa studies in Child Welfare, Volume 5, No. 2. Iowa City: University of Iowa, The Iowa Child Welfare Research Station. | 204 | C, CC | ||
English - Irish | Hickey (1997). On the acquisition of Irish English phonology. In J. R. Dow & M. Wolff (Eds.), Languages and lives: Essays in honor of Werner Enninger (pp. 171–187). Peter Lang. | 3 | C, V, Phon processes | - | |
English - New Zealand | Ballard, E., Wilson, J., Campbell, S., Purdy, S. C., & Yee, T. (2011). Phonological development: Establishing norms for New Zealand children aged 5;0 to 5;11 years. New Zealand Journal of Speech-Language Therapy, 66, 66–79. | 106 | PCC, PVC, PPC | - | |
English - New Zealand | Moyle, J. (2005). The New Zealand Articulation Test norms project. New Zealand Journal of Speech-Language Therapy, 60, 61–74. | 1013 | C, CC, PCC | ||
English - Scottish | Matthews, B. M. (2001). On variability and the acquisition of vowels in normally developing Scottish children (18-36 months). [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh. | 7 | V | - | |
English - South African and Xhosa (isiXhosa) | Mowrer, D., & Burger, S. A. (1991). Comparative analysis of phonological acquisition of consonants in the speech of 2;5–6 year old Xhosa- and English-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 5,139–164. | 140 | C | ||
English - African American | Bland-Stewart, L. M. (2003). Phonetic inventories and phonological patterns of African American 2-year-olds: A preliminary investigation. Communication Disorders Quarterly,24(3), 109-112. | 8 | C, CC | ||
English - African American | Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2004). Grade-related changes in the production of African American English. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47(2), 450-463. | 400 | C, CC, PCC-R | ||
English - African American | Craig, H. K., Thompson, C.A., Washington, J.A., & Potter, S.L. (2003). Phonological features of child African American English. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46(3), 623-635. | 64 | C | ||
English - African American | Haynes, W. O., & Moran, M. J. (1989). A cross-sectional developmental study of final consonant production in Southern Black children from preschool through third grade. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 20(4), 400-406. | 222 | C | ||
English - African American | Hinton, L. N., Hinton, L.N., & Pollock, K. E. (2000). Regional variations in the phonological characteristics of African American Vernacular English. Word Englishes, 19(1), 39–58. | 22 | V | ||
English - African American | Kohn, M. E., Wolfram, W., Farrington, C., Renn, J., & van Hofwegan, J. (2021). Vowel variation across time and space. In African American language: Language development from infancy to adulthood (pp. 73-110). Cambridge University Press. | 20 | V | - | |
English - African American | Stockman, I. (1993). Variable word initial and medial consonant relationships in children’s speech sound articulation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 76, 675–689. | 106 | C, CC | ||
English - African American | Stockman, I. J. (2006a). Alveolar segment bias in the final consonant deletion patterns of African American children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 37(2), 85-95. | 7 | C | ||
English - African American | Stockman, I. J. (2008). Toward validation of a minimal competence phonetic core for young African American children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 51(5), 1244-1262. | 120 | C, CC, PCC-R | ||
English - African American | Van Hofwegen, J., & Wolfram, W. (2010). Coming of age in African American English: A longitudinal study. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 14(4), 427-455. | 32 | C | ||
English - African American | Wolfram, W. (1989). Structural variability in phonological development: Final nasals in vernacular Black English. In R. Fasold, R., & D. Schiffren (Eds.), Current issues in linguistic theory: Language change and variation (pp. 301–332). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. | 12 | C | ||
English - English | Dodd, B. (1995). Children’s acquisition of phonology. In B. Dodd (Ed.), Differential diagnosis and treatment of speech disordered children (pp. 21–48). Whurr. | 5 | C, V | - | |
English - English | Dodd, B., Holm, A., Hua, Z., & Crosbie, S. (2003). Phonological development: A normative study of British-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 17(8), 617–643. | 684 | C, V, PCC, PVC, PPC | ||
English - English | Roulstone, S., Loader, S., Northstone, K., & Beveridge, M. (2002). The speech and language of children aged 25 months: Descriptive data from the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children. Early Child Development and Care, 172 (3), 259–268. | 1127 | Intell | ||
English - English | Wren, Y., McLeod, S., White, P., Miller, L. L., & Roulstone, S. (2013). Speech characteristics of 8-year-old children: Findings from a prospective population study. Journal of Communication Disorders, 46(1), 53–69. | 6,399 | C, CC, V, PCC, PVC | ||
English - English | Wren, Y., Tittertington, J., & White, P. (2021). How many words make a sample? Determining the minimum number of word tokens needed in connected speech samples for child speech assessment. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 35 (8), 761–778. | 776 | C, CC, V, PCC, PVC | ||
English - Fiji | Hopf, S. C., McLeod, S., & McDonagh, S. H. (2017). Validation of the Intelligibility in Context Scale for school students in Fiji. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 31(7–9), 487–502. | 65 | Intell | ||
English - Fiji | McAlister, H., McLeod, S., & Hopf, S. C. (2022). Fijian school students’ Fiji English speech sound acquisition. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. Advance online publication. | 72 | C, CC, PCC | ||
English - Irish (Gaeilge) | Leahy, M. & Dodd, B. (2011). Manual of diagnostic evaluation of articulation and phonology: Irish standardization. Pearson. | 306 | C, PCC, PVC, PPC, oro-motor | ||
English - Malaysian | Phoon, H. S., Abdullah, A. C., & Maclagan, M. (2012). The effect of dialect on the phonological analysis of Chinese-influenced Malaysian English speaking children. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 14(6), 487-498. | 264 | C, CC, PCC | ||
English - Malaysian | Phoon, H. S. (2010). The phonological development of Malaysian English speaking Chinese children: A normative study. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. | 264 | C, CC, V | ||
English - Singaporean | En, L. G. W., Brebner, C., & McCormack, P. (2014). A preliminary report on the English phonology of typically developing English-Mandarin bilingual preschool Singaporean children. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 49(3), 317-332. | 70 | PCC, PVC, PPC | ||
English - South African | Pascoe, M., Mahura, O., & Le Roux, J. (2018). South African English speech development: Preliminary data from typically developing preschool children in Cape Town. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 32(12), 1145-1161. | 308 | C,V, PVC, PCC | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Babatsouli, E. (2013). Phonological development of a child’s L2 English in bilingualism. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Crete. | 1 | Developmental milestones; vocabulary | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Babatsouli, E. (2015). Technologies for the study of speech: Review and an application. Themes in Science and Technology Education, 8(1), 17–32. | 1 | C | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Babatsouli, E. (2017). Bilingual development of theta in a child. Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics, 53(2), 157–195. https://doi.org/10.1515/psicl-2017-000 | 1 | C | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Babatsouli, E. (2018). Acquired singleton fricatives and lateral in cluster development: A bilingual case. In E. Babatsouli & D. Ingram (Eds.), Phonology in protolanguage and interlanguage (pp. 109–138). Equinox Publishing. | 1 | CC | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Babatsouli, E. (2019b). Melodies of child Greek-English phonological interference. Revista de Estudos da Língua(gem), 17(2), 209–236. https://doi.org/10.22481/el.v17i2.5347 | 1 | phonological processes | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Babatsouli, E. (2020a). Enhanced phonology in a child’s weaker language in bilingualism: A portrait. In E. Babatsouli & M. J. Ball (Eds.), An anthology of bilingual child phonology (pp. 117–139). Multilingual Matters. | 1 | C | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Babatsouli, E. (2020a). Enhanced phonology in a child’s weaker language in bilingualism: A portrait. In E. Babatsouli & M. J. Ball (Eds.), An anthology of bilingual child phonology (pp. 117–139). Multilingual Matters. | 1 | MLUw, phonology | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Babatsouli, E. (2020b). Separation of vowel sequences by consonant addition in a child’s developmental speech. Journal of Monolingual and Bilingual Speech, 2(2), 290–314. https://doi.org/10.1558/jmbs.18848 | 1 | V | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Babatsouli, E. (2021a). What is in the ‘I’ of the beholder: Modelling the processing of consonant addition in a child’s pronoun. Communications in statistics: Case studies, data analysis and applications, 77(4), 670–694. | 1 | consonant epenthesis | Journal article | |
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Babatsouli, E. (2021b). Extrema values of consonant cluster accuracy with member accuracy in children’s speech. Chaotic Modeling and Simulation, 11(1), 51–70. | 1 | CC | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Babatsouli, E.& Nicoladis, E. (2019). The acquisition of English possessives by a bilingual child: Do input and usage frequency matter? Journal of Child Language, 46(1), 170-183. | 1 | morphophonology, input, usage | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Geronikou, E., Michou, E., & Kyriazis, V. (2019). Narrative skills of bilingual school-aged English-Greek children’s: Preliminary results. In E. Babatsouli (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on Monolingual and Bilingual Speech 2019 (pp. 45–51). IMBS. | 2 | MLU-5 | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Papastefanou, T., Powell, D., & Marinis, T. (2019). Language and decoding skills in Greek-English primary school bilingual children: Effects of language dominance, contextual factors and cross-language relationships between the heritage and the majority language. Frontiers in Communication, 4, 65. | 40 | Phonological awareness | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Papastergiou, A., & Sanoudaki, E. (2021). Language skills in Greek-English bilingual children attending Greek supplementary schools in England. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(8), 2834–2852. | 31 | Vocabulary | ||
English + Greek (Πρότυπο Νέας Ελληνικής) | Yavaş, M., & Babatsouli, E. (2016). Acquisition of /s/-clusters in a Greek-English bilingual child: Sonority or OCP? In M. J. Ball & N. Müller (Eds.), Challenging sonority: Cross-linguistic evidence (pp. 337-354). Equinox. | 1 | C | ||
English + Kikuyu | Nyagah, J. W. (1994). The acquisition of initial English consonant clusters by Kikuyu children. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Reading, Reading, UK. | 34 | C, CC | ||
English + Spanish (Mexican) | Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. E., Kester, E. S., Davis, B. L., & Peña, E. D. (2008). English speech sound development in preschool-aged children from bilingual English-Spanish environments. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 39, 314–328. | 33 | C, V phonological processes | ||
English + Spanish (Puerto Rican) | Goldstein, B., & Washington, P. (2001). An initial investigation of phonological patterns in 4-year-old typically developing Spanish-English bilingual children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32, 153–164. | 12 | C, V phonological processes | ||
English + Spanish (Puerto Rican) | Goldstein, B., Fabiano, L., & Washington, P. (2005). Phonological skills in predominantly English, predominantly Spanish, and Spanish-English bilingual children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 201–218. | 15 | C, V, phonological processes | ||
English + Vietnamese | Margetson, K., McLeod, S., & Verdon, S. (2023). Cross-linguistic transfer and ambient phonology: Impact on diagnosis of speech sound disorders in a longitudinal bilingual case study. Journal of Monolingual and Bilingual Speech, 4(3), 311–339. | 1 child | C, PCC, phonological patterns | ||
English + Vietnamese | Margetson, K., McLeod, S., & Verdon, S. (2024). Diagnosing speech sound disorder in bilingual Vietnamese-English-speaking children: Are English-only assessments sufficient? In E. Babatsouli (Ed.). Multilingual acquisition and learning: A ecosystemic view to diversity. (pp. 217-245). John Benjamins Publishing. | 4 children | C, PCC, Phon pattern, Intell | ||
English + Vietnamese | McLeod, S., Margetson, K., Wang, C., Tran, V. H., Verdon, S., White, K., & Phạm, B. (2022). Speech acquisition within a 3-generation Vietnamese-English family: The influence of maturation and ambient phonology. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 36(4-5), 470-493. | 5 (2 children; 3 adults) | C, PCC, PVC, PTC | ||
English + Vietnamese | McLeod, S., Verdon, S., Margetson, K., Tran, V. H., Wang, C., Phạm, B., To, L., & Huynh, K. (2023). Multilingual speech acquisition by Vietnamese-English–speaking children and adult family members. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 66(7), 2184-2229. | 154 (69 children, 85 adults) | C, CC, V, T, PCC, PVC, PTC, Phon pattern, Intell | ||
English + Welsh (Cymraeg) | Lewis, R. (2021). Early phonological development in children residing in Welsh-English communities: Typical and atypical patterns. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation], Cardiff Metropolitan University. | 6 | C, W | ||
English + Welsh (Cymraeg) | Mayr, R., Howells, G., & Lewis, R. (2015). Asymmetries in phonological development: The case of word-final cluster acquisition in Welsh-English bilingual children, Journal of Child Language, 42, 146-179. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000913000603. | 40 | CC, PCCC | ||
English + Welsh (Cymraeg) | Mayr, R., Jones, D. & Mennen, I. (2014). Speech learning in bilinguals: Consonant cluster acquisition, In E. Thomas, & I. Mennen (Eds.), Advances in the study of bilingualism (pp. 3-24). Multilingual Matters. | 41 | CC, PCCC | - | |
English + Welsh (Cymraeg) | Munro, S., Ball, M. J., Müller, N., Duckworth, M. & Lyddy, F. (2005). Phonological acquisition in Welsh-English bilingual children. Journal of Multilingual Communication Disorders, 3, 24-49. | 83 | C, PCC |