Salinity management in Pakistan

In Pakistan, irrigated agriculture adds approximately 15 million tonnes of salt annually to the Indus Basin. Salinity affects at least 4.5 million hectares of land across the country, and 54% of the lower part of the Indus Basin.

The challenge

Australia and Pakistan share the challenges of developing agriculture within water-scarce, salinity-affected landscapes.

As with the Murray-Darling Basin, salinity in the Indus Basin can be categorised as both primary (i.e. a natural phenomenon) and secondary (i.e. human-induced salinity/waterlogging from irrigation).

Increased dependence on poor-quality groundwater, due to limited and unreliable surface water supplies, is accelerating the extent and severity of land salinisation.

This initiative focused on identifying and exploring practical strategies for individuals living and working in salinity-affected agricultural regions of the southern Indus Basin in Pakistan. Using a collaborative approach grounded in the principles of Stakeholder Engagement for Research and Learning (SERL), the project worked closely with rural and coastal communities impacted by salinity, encouraging them to take an active role in shaping sustainable adaptation practices.

The Adapting to Salinity in the Southern Indus Basin (ASSIB) project was initiated to develop and investigate adaptation options and strategies with people managing and living in salinity-affected agricultural landscapes in the southern Indus Basin.

Our response

Our response to this challenge built on the  growing acceptance that farmers’ participation is vital to the success of field-level practice change programs, including those involving salinity management for those living in salinity affected landscapes.

Our approach involved selecting and engaging a set of so-called ‘bright spot’ farming communities who have the capacity to co-design on-property research activities to be undertaken as a co-inquiry investigation with ASSIB researchers and other relevant stakeholders.

The project supported knowledge exchange and skill development across farming communities, academic institutions, government bodies, and other key stakeholders. It also helped pave the way for broader implementation of proven salinity management techniques, highlighting the critical role of inclusive community participation—especially involving women and youth—in fostering long-term resilience.

The project builds on research and outputs from several ACIAR funded projects in Pakistan, including three managed by Charles Sturt’s former Institute for Land, Water and Society, namely:

Achievements

  • We  used and improved a best practice participatory approach to co-design on-property research activities with men and women farmers in our bright spot communities. The approach was based on solid adult education principles that recognise farmers as equal participants with others on the research team. Farmers bring their own expertise to the research experience and are equal contributors to its process and outcomes. Farmers provide observations to the research team, who then respond with advice.
  • Co-inquiry activities were undertaken at several bright spots, with three acquiring sufficient experience to now take a leading role in demonstrating the success of ASSIB’s on-property co-design and co-inquiry approach. These activities enhance the farming communities’ capacity to have an ongoing leading role in such initiatives and strengthens their access to and links with relevant service providers. See these videos from project partner IUCN Pakistan, who describe the Tippun Dublo coastal community’s experiences of co-inquiry with the ASSIB project. Long version 7 Minutes Short version 2 Minutes
  • We have established a land and water capability assessment framework to help categorise a range of adaptation options and their suitability for particular on-property circumstances. A questionnaire to rapidly appraise on-property land and water suitability has been successfully trialled and is being converted into a mobile App. These will be published as part of an updated Salinity Handbook bringing key lessons from our co-inquiry investigations across a range of landscape types together into one place.
  • Local-scale efforts are underpinned by research into salinity-related trends and modelling at broader scales. Analysis of water balance and crop area variability trends in selected Indus Basin canal command areas are offering directions for policy, management and future research. Groundwater models to support monitoring and management of these same canal command areas have been produced by early career researchers recruited by our two university partners. These models were used to develop future scenarios for two regions (Southern Bari doab in southern Punjab and Pinyari canal command area and coastal Sujawal in Sindh). The scenarios included potential adaptation options to respond to excessive pumping and climate change impacts in Southern Bari Doab, and in response to seawater intrusion and waterlogging in Sujawal, This work has significant potential for uptake by Pakistan's authorities responsible for responding to climate change and for water resource management.
  • A summary of findings and recommended actions are included in the following fact sheets and policy briefs.
  • Climate Change Impacts on Availability of Groundwater Resources in Southern Sindh: Adaptation Strategies for Sustainability of Agriculture
  • Groundwater Sustainability in Pinyari Canal Command and Coastal Sindh: Policy Guidelines to Improve Groundwater Management
  • Climate Change Impacts on Availability of Groundwater Resources in Southern Punjab: Adaptation Strategies for Groundwater Sustainability
  • Groundwater Sustainability in Southern Punjab: Policy Guidance to Improve Groundwater Management
  • Groundwater Policy Brief for Southern Punjab
  • Groundwater Policy Brief for Southern Sindh and the Coastal Zone

The goal

Intended outcomes by the end of the project

  • Newly developed and existing evidence-based knowledge about salinity in the southern Indus Basin of Pakistan will be available for the staff of Pakistan-based projects, programs and organisations relevant to agricultural development.
  • The project’s case study community members and their institutional support networks will have improved understanding of the opportunities for, and constraints to, current options for adapting to salinity.
  • Individuals and groups (including women and youth) from the project’s case study communities are building capacity to plan their own futures for adapting well to salinity.
  • Relevant government departments, policy makers, donors and other institutions have engaged with and are supporting locally and collaboratively determined adaptation planning strategies, including through co-development of future participatory research projects.

The result

Project Outcomes

Scientific investigations into salinity patterns and effects, including studies of surface water, satellite imagery, and groundwater modeling, have enhanced the capacity for strategic planning and informed decision-making at multiple levels.

  1. Access to Knowledge
    Staff working on agricultural development initiatives in Pakistan now have access to both newly generated and existing insights regarding salinity issues in the southern Indus Basin.
  2. Improved Understanding
    Community members involved in the project, along with their supporting institutions, have gained a clearer understanding of the challenges and opportunities associated with current strategies for managing salinity.
  3. Capacity Building
    Individuals and groups within the case study communities—including women and youth—are actively developing the skills and knowledge needed to plan for effective adaptation to salinity.
  4. Institutional Engagement
    Government agencies, policy makers, donors, and other relevant institutions are participating in and supporting locally driven adaptation efforts. This includes collaboration on future participatory research initiatives.

Our team

Principal scientist

Our research team

portrait of Professor Jay Punthakey
Professor Jay Punthakey
Adjunct
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portrait of Professor Catherine Allan
Professor Catherine Allan
Environmental sociology and planning
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portrait of Dr Mobushir Khan
Dr Mobushir Khan
Spatial Scientist
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portrait of Dr Jen Bond
Dr Jen Bond
Social Scientist
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Key research publications

These reports are outputs from the Improving groundwater management to enhance agriculture and farming livelihoods in Pakistan Project (2016-2021)

  • Khair, S., Ashfaq, M., Ali, A., Akhtar, S, Mangan, T. & Allan C. (2021a). Improving groundwater management to enhance agriculture and farming livelihoods in Pakistan: Participatory Rural Appraisal: starting the co-inquiry to groundwater and livelihoods (ILWS Report No. 148). Albury: Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University University.  Download report
  • Mitchell, M., Awan, U. K., Iqbal, N., & Punthakey, J. (Eds.). (2021). Improving groundwater management to enhance agriculture and farming livelihoods: Literature review (ILWS Report No. 147). Albury: Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University. Download report
  • Waraich, R., Siyal, S., Akhtar, S., Mangan, T., & Allan, C. (Eds.). (2021). Gender, groundwater and livelihoods in Pakistan (ILWS Report No. 146). Albury: Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University. Download report
  • Khair, S., Ashfaq, M., Ali, A., Akhtar, S, Mangan, T. & Allan C. (2021). Improving groundwater management to enhance agriculture and farming livelihoods in Pakistan: Participatory Rural Appraisal: starting the co-inquiry to groundwater and livelihoods. ILWS Report 148. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Download report
  • Khair, S.M., Rasheed, A. & Culas, R. (2021). Improving groundwater management to enhance agriculture and farming livelihoods: Socio-Economic Analysis of Groundwater Resource Management for Balochistan, Pakistan. ILWS Report 155. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Download report
  • Ashfaq, M., Culas, R., Baig, I.A., Ali, A. & Imran, M.A. (2021). Improving groundwater management to enhance agriculture and farming livelihoods: Socio-economic Impact of Groundwater Resource Use on the Livelihood of Farming Communities in Eastern Punjab, Pakistan. ILWS Report 156. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Albury, Australia Download report
  • Mangan, T., Dahri, G.N., Ashfaq, M., Culas R., Baig, I., Punthakey, J.F. & Nangraj, M. (2021). Improving groundwater management to enhance agriculture and farming livelihoods: Socio-Economic Assessment for Improving Groundwater Management in the Left Bank Command of the Sukkur Barrage, Sindh Pakistan. ILWS Report 157. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Download report
  • Anjum, L., Awan, U.K., Nawaz, R.A., Hassan, G.Z., Akhter, R.S., Haroon, C., Shabir, G., Bakhar, F.R.H., Javed. M., Riaz, M. & Punthakey, J.F. (2021). Improving groundwater management to enhance agriculture and farming livelihoods: Groundwater Model for the Lower Bari Doab Canal, Punjab, Pakistan. ILWS Report 158. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Download report
  • Ahmed, W., Ejaz, M.S., Memon, A., Ahmed, S., Sahito, A., Qureshi, A.L., Khan, M.R., Memon, K.S., Khero, Z., Lashari, B.K., Marri, F. & Punthakey, J.F. (2021). Improving groundwater management to enhance agriculture and farming livelihoods: Groundwater Model for Left Bank Command of Sukkur Barrage in Khairpur, Naushero Feroze, and Shaheed Benazirabad Districts.  ILWS Report 159. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Download report
  • Ahmed, W., Ejaz, M.S., Memon, U., Khair, S., Khilji, A.R., Tarin, R., Ahmad, F., Qureshi, A.L., Khan, M.R., Amin, M., Latif, M., Ahmed, M. & Punthakey, J.F. (2021). Improving groundwater management to enhance agriculture and farming livelihoods: Groundwater Model for Kuchlak Sub-basin, Balochistan. ILWS Report 160. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Download report
  • Nasir, J., Ashfaq, M., Baig, I., Khair, S.M., Mangan, T., Allan, C., Ali, A., Culas, R. & Punthakey, J.F. (2021). Representative agricultural pathways and socioeconomic benefits of groundwater management interventions in Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan Provinces, Pakistan. ILWS Report 161. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Download report
  • Khan, M.R., Nabeel, E. Amin, M., Punthakey, J.F., Mitchell, M., Allan, C. & Hassan, G.Z. (2021). Improving groundwater management to enhance agriculture and farming livelihoods: Integrating web and mobile based applications for groundwater management. ILWS Report 162. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Download report

Mitchell, Michael., Ahmad, Mobin-ud-Din., Allan, Catherine., Baig, Irfan A., Barrett-Lennard, Edward G., Channa, Muhammad Yousif., Heaney-Mustafa, Sandra., Khan, Mobushir R., Lashari, Bakhshal K., Punthakey, Jehangir F., Qureshi, Asad S., Soomro, Naveed Ali. (2025) . Adapting to Salinity in the Southern Indus Basin (ASSIB) - Final Report. ACIAR

Samoo, Akhtar Hussain, Mitchell, Michael, and Allan, Catherine (2025). A Strategy for Building Capacity to Adapt: Using a Capitals-Based Capacity Assessment Approach with Community Groups in Indus Delta, Pakistan. Gulbali Report 19. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW.

Zakir-Hassan, G., Punthakey, J.F., Shabir, G., & Hassan, F.R., (2024). Assessing the potential of underground storage of flood water: A case study from Southern Punjab Region in Pakistan. Journal of Groundwater Science and Engineering, 12(4): 387-396.  https://doi.org/10.26599/JGSE.2024.9280029

Allan, C. Baloch, T., Channa, M. Y., Channa, M. A., Heaney-Mustafa, S., Jabeen, N., Kumbhar, B., Malik, I. N., Mohiuddin, I. Mitchell, M., Riaz, M. F., Rubab, A., Samoo, A. H., Zahid, S. M. A. & Zaman, B. (2024). Adapting to Salinity in the Southern Indus Basin: Stories of Change. Gulbali Report 4. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW 2640.

Raheem, A., Saifullah, M., Punthakey, J. F., Zakir-Hassan, G., & Baig, I. A. (2024). Modelling Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Managing Groundwater Resources in Southern Punjab. Gulbali Report 5. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW 2640

Raheem, A., Saifullah, M., Punthakey, J. F., & Baig, I. A. (2024). Assessing Groundwater Monitoring in the Southern Bari Doab and Guidance for Strengthening Groundwater Monitoring across Punjab. Gulbali Report 6. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW 2640

Jamali, S., Punthakey, J. F., Ahmed, W., Qureshi, A. L., Raheem, A., & Ahmed, M. (2024). Modelling Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Managing Groundwater Resources in Pinyari Canal Command Area and Coastal Sujawal, Sindh. Gulbali Report 7. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW 2640

Ahmed, W., Punthakey, J. F., Jamali, S., Qureshi, A. L., Shaikh, S. (2024). Assessing Groundwater Monitoring in Sujawal and Guidance for Strengthening Groundwater Monitoring across Sindh. Gulbali Report 8. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW 2640

Faried, H. N., Ahsan, M. B., Baig, I. A., ul-Haq, T., Mohiuddin, I., Riaz, M. F., Sarfraz, B., Raza, N. (2024). Summary of Co-Inquiry Research Experiences with Salinity-Affected Jalalpur Farming Communities. Gulbali Report 9, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW.

Qureshi, A. L., Memon, K. S., Zaidi, A. Z., Ullah, A., Kumbhar, B., Zaman, B. (2024). Summary of Co-Inquiry Research Experiences with Salinity-Affected Farming Communities along the Malwah Distributary. Gulbali Report 10. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW.

Heaney-Mustafa, S., Ashraf, M. (2024). Building and Scaling Out Knowledge: The Practice of Co-Learning with Farmers Gulbali  Report 11. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW.

Khan, M.R., Barrett-Lennard, E.G., & Punthakey, J.F. (2024). Mobile and Web Applications for Land and Water Evaluation Gulbali  Report 12. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW.

Jarwar, A., Samoo, A. H., Malik, I. N., Soomro, N. A. (2024). Living with Salinity in the Southern Indus Basin through Aquaculture Gulbali Institute Report No.13. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW.

Soomro, K. B., Samoo, A. H., Malik, I. N., & Soomro, N. A. (2024). Living with salinity in the southern Indus Basin through saline agriculture. Gulbali Report 14. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW.

Lashari, B. K., Memon, K. S. (2024). Adapting to Salinity in the Southern Indus Basin: Future Research Road Map for Living with Salinity. Gulbali Report No. 18. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW.

Technical Reports

Ali, A. (2023). Improving salinity and agricultural water management in the Indus Basin, Pakistan: Issues, management and opportunities: A synthesis from a desk-top literature review. Gulbali Report 1. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW 2640.

Heaney-Mustafa, S., Channa, M. Y., Baloch, T., Channa, M. A., Kumbhar, B., Mohiuddin, I. Riaz, M. F., Rubab, A., Samoo, A. H., Zahid, S. M. A. & Zaman, B. (2023). Stakeholder Engagement for Research and Learning (SERL): Theoretical Underpinnings and Guidelines for Facilitators. Gulbali Report 3. Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW 2640.

Journal Articles

  • Kirby, M., & Ahmad, M.-u.-D. (2022). Can Pakistan achieve sustainable water security? Climate change, population growth and development impacts to 2100. Sustainability Science, 17(2049-2062). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-022-01115-0

Papers in conference proceedings

Technical reports

  • Ashraf, M., Fatima, B., Hasan, F. u., & Salam, H. A. (2022). Adapting to Salinity in the Southern Indus Basin: Policy Review. Islamabad, Pakistan: Pakistan Council for Research in Water Resources. https://pcrwr.gov.pk/water-management-reports/

Journal Articles

  • Ahmad, M.-u.-D., Peña-Arancibia, J. L., Stewart, J. P., & Kirby, J. M. (2021). Water balance trends in irrigated canal commands and its implications for sustainable water management in Pakistan: Evidence from 1981 to 2012. Agricultural Water Management, 245, 106648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106648
  • Ahmad, M.-u.-D., Peña-Arancibia, J. L., Yu, Y., Stewart, J. P., Podger, G. M., & Kirby, J. M. (2021). Climate change and reservoir sedimentation implications for irrigated agriculture in the Indus Basin Irrigation System in Pakistan. Journal of Hydrology, 603, 126967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126967

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